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consist； if it is not the same as alchiber？
3。 Is alchiber to be understood as relating to the
gall…apple and chalkanthum （blue vitriol）？
To the first and third questions Maimonides declared
that deyo and alchiber were not identical；
and for the reasons that the Talmud declares deyo to
be a writing material which does not remain on the
surface on which it is placed and to be easily effaced。
On the other hand alchiber contains gum and other
things which causes it to adhere to the writing surface。
To the second question he affirmed that the Talmud
distinguishes a double kind of deyo； one containing
little or no gum and being a fluid； and the other referring
to 〃pulverized coal of the vine； soot from
burning olive oil； tar； rosin and honey； pressed into
plates to be dissolved in water when wanted for use。〃
Furthermore； while the Talmud excludes the use of
certain inks of which iron vitriol was one； it does not
exclude atramentum； （chalkanthum； copper vitriol）；
because the Talmud never speaks of it。 He insisted
that the Talmud requires a dry ink （deyo）。
As one of the last entries made in the Talmud （a
great collection of legal decisions by the ancient
Rabbis； Hebrew traditions； etc。； and believed to have
been commenced in the second century of the Christian
era） is claimed to belong to the sixth century；
mentions gall…apples and iron （copper） vitriol； it must
have referred to 〃gall〃 ink。 Further investigation
discloses the fact that such galls were of Chinese origin
and as we know they do not contain the necessary
ferment which the aleppo and other galls possess for
inducing a transformation of the tannin into gallic
acid； no complete union could therefore obtain。
Hence the value of this composition was limited until
the time when yeast and other materials were introduced
to overcome its deficiencies。
Hotz…Osterwald of Zurich； antiquarian and scholar；
has asserted that with the exception of the carbon
inks employed on papyrus； the writing pigments of
antiquity and the Middle Ages have scarcely been
investigated。 The dark to light…brown pigment；
hitherto a problem； universally used on parchment；
he contends upon historical； chemical and microscopic
evidence is identical with oeno…cyanin and was prepared
for the most part from yeast； and was first
employed as a pigment。 Contrary to the general opinion
it contains no iron； except frequently accidental
traces； and after its appearance in Greece in the third
century； it formed almost exclusively the ink of the
ancient manuscripts； until displaced by the gallate
inks； said to have been introduced by the
Arabians。 These accidental traces of iron were due
to the employment of iron vessels in the making of
the ink。
My own observations in this direction confirm and
establish the fact that it was the custom in the early
centuries of the Christian era to utilize yeast or an
analogous compound as part of the composition of ink；
to which was added sepia； or the rind of the pomegranate
apple previously dissolved by heat in alkaline
solutions。
This analogous compound was probably the material
procured from wine lees （dregs）； deposited after fermentation
has commenced； and which after considerable
application of heat yields not only most of the
tannin contained in the stones and fruit stalks； but a
viscid compound characteristic of gelatine and of a
red…purple color which in course of time changes to
brown。
Bloxam says that the coloring matter of grapes and
of red wine appears to be 〃cyanin。〃
One of the methods of treating wine lees； as translated
in the eighteenth century from an old Italian
secreta； is sufficiently curious to partly quote：
〃Dry the Lees （dregs） of wine with a gentle fire
and fill with them two third of a large earthen Retort；
place this retort in a reverberatory furnace； and
fitting it to a large receiver； give a small fire to it to
heat the Retort by degrees； and drive forth an insipid
phlegm； when vapours begin to rise； you must
take out the phlegm and luting carefully the junctures
of your vessels； quicken the fire little by little
until you find the receiver filled with white clouds；
continue it in this condition； and you perceive the
receiver to cool； raise the fire to the utmost extremity；
and continue it so； until there arise no more
vapours。 When the vessels are cold unlute the receiver；
and shaking it to make the Volatile salt；
which sticks to it； fall to the bottom； pour it all
into a bolt…head； fit it to a Head with a small receiver；
lute well the junctures and placing it in
sand； give a little fire under it； and the volatile salt
will rise and stick to the head； and the top of the
Bolt…head； take off your head and set on another
in its place； gather your salt and stop it tip quickly；
for it easily dissolves into a liquor； continue the
fire； and take care to gather the Salt according as
you see it appear； but when there rises no more
salt； a liquor will distill； of which you must draw
about three ounces； and put out the fire；〃 &c。
The 〃lees of wine；〃 in connection with the ancient
methods of ink…making is also referred to by the
younger Pliny in his twenty…fifth book； which the
Edinburgh Review has carefully translated and
printed：
〃INK （or literally） BLACKING。Ink also may be
set down among the artificial （or compound）
drugs； although it is a mineral derived from two
sources。 For； it is sometimes developed in the
form of a saline efflorescence；or is a real mineral
of sulphureous colorchosen for this purpose。
There have been painters who dug up from graves
colored coals （CARBON）。 But all these are useless
and new…fangled notions。 For it is made from
soot in various forms； as （for instance） of burnt
rosin or pitch。 For this purpose； they have built
manufactories not emitting that smoke。 The ink
of the very best quality is made from the smoke of
torches。 An inferior article is made from the soot
of furnaces and bath…house chimneys。 There are
some （manufacturers） also； who employ the dried
lees of wine； and they do say that if the lees so
employed were from good wine； the quality of the
ink is thereby much improved。 Polygnotus and
Micon； celebrated painters at Athens； made their
black paint from burnt grape…vines； they gave it
the name of TRYGYNON。 APELLES； we are told；
made HIS from burnt ivory； and called it elephantina
'ivory…black。' Indigo has been recently imported；
a substance whose composition I have not
yet investigated。 The dyers make theirs from the
dark crust that gradually accumulates on brass…kettles。
Ink is made also from torches （pine…knots）；
and from charcoal pounded fine in mortars。 'The
cuttlefish' has a remarkable qualify in this respect；
but the coloring…matter which it produces is not
used in the manufacture of ink。 All ink is improved
by exposure to the sun's rays。 Book…writers'
ink has gum mixed wi