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the direction of wealthy publishers； were made
so efficient in the production of books； that typography；
in an open competition； could have offered few advantages。
〃Our knowledge of the Roman organization of
labor in the field of bookmaking is not as precise as
could be wished； but the frequent notices of books；
copyists and publishers； made by many authors
during the first century； teach us that books
were plentiful。 Horace； the elegant and fastidious
man of letters； complained that his books were too
common； and that they were sometimes found in
the hands of vulgar snobs for whose entertainment
they were not written。 Martial； the jovial man of
the world； boasted that his books of stinging epigrams
were to be found in everybody's hands or
pockets。 Books were read not only in the libraries；
but at the baths； in the porticoes of houses； at
private dinners and in mixed assemblies。 The
business of bookmaking was practised by too many
people； and some were incompetent。 Lucian； who
had a keen perception of pretense in every form；
ridicules the publishers as ignoramuses。 Strabo；
who probably wrote illegibly； says that the books
of booksellers were incorrect。
〃The price of books made by slave labor was
necessarily low。 Martial says that his first book of
epigrams was sold in plain binding for six sesterces；
about twenty…four cents of American money； the
same book in sumptuous binding was valued at five
denarii； about eighty cents。 He subsequently complained
that his thirteenth book was sold for only
four sesterces； about sixteen cents。 He frankly
admits that half of this sum was profit； but intimates；
somewhat ungraciously； that the publisher Tryphon
gave him too small a share。 Of the merits of this
old disagreement between the author and publisher
we have not enough of facts to justify an opinion。
We learn that some publishers； like Tryphon and
the brothers Sosii； acquired wealth； but there are
many indications that publishing was then； as it is
now； one of the most speculative kinds of business。
One writer chuckles over the unkind fate that sent
so many of the unsold books of rival authors from
the warehouses of the publisher； to the shops of
grocers and bakers； where they were used to wrap
up pastry and spices； another writer says that the
unsold stock of a bookseller was sometimes bought
by butchers and trunk makers。
〃The Romans not only had plenty of books but
they had a manuscript daily newspaper； the Acta
Diurna； which seems to have been a record of the
proceedings of the senate。 We do not know how
it was written； nor how it was published； but it
was frequently mentioned by contemporary writers
as the regular official medium for transmitting
intelligence。 It was sent to subscribers in distant
cities； and was； sometimes； read to an assembled
army。 Cicero mentions the Acta as a sheet in
which he expected to find the city news and gossip
about marriages and divorces。
〃With the decline of power in the Roman empire
came the decline of literature throughout the
world。 In the sixth century the business of bookmaking
had fallen into hopeless decay。 The books
that had been written were seldom read； and the
number of readers diminished with every succeeding
generation。 Ignorance pervaded in all ranks of
society。 The Emperor Justin I； who reigned between
the years 518 and 527； could not write； and
was obliged to sign state papers with the form of
stencil plate that had been recommended by Quintilian。
Respect for literature was dead。 In the
year； 476； Zeno； the Isaurian； burned 120；000 volumes
in the city of Constantinople。 During the
year 640； Amrou； the Saracen； fed the baths of
Alexandria for six months with the 500；000 books
that had been accumulating for centuries in its
famous library of the Serapion。 Yet books were
so scarce in Rome at the close of the seventh century
that Pope Martin requested one of his bishops
to supply them； if possible； from Germany。 The
ignorance of ecclesiastics in high station was
alarming。 During this century； and for centuries
afterward； there were many bishops and archbishops
of the church who could not sign their names。 It
was asserted at a council of the church held in the
year 992； that scarcely a single person was to be
found in Rome itself who knew the first elements of
letters。 Hallam says； 'To sum up the account of
ignorance in a word； it was rare for a layman of
any rank to know bow to sign his name。' He repeats
the statements that Charlemagne could not
write； and Frederic Barbarossa could not read。
John； king of Bohemia； and Philip； the Hardy； king
of France； were ignorant of both accomplishments。
The graces of literature were tolerated only in the
ranks of the clergy； the layman who preferred letters
to arms was regarded as a man of mean spirit。
When the Crusaders took Constantinople； in 1204；
they exposed to public ridicule the pens and inkstands
that they found in the conquered city as the
ignoble arms of a contemptible race of students。
〃During this period of intellectual darkness；
which lasted from the fifth until the fifteenth century；
a period sometimes described； and not improperly；
as the dark ages； there was no need for
any improvement in the old method of making
books。 The world was not then ready for typography。
The invention waited for readers more than
it did for types； the multitude of book buyers
upon which its success depended had to be created。
Books were needed as well as readers。 The treatises
of the old Roman sophists and rhetoricians； the
dialectics of Aristotle and the schoolmen； and the
commentaries on ecclesiastical law of the fathers of
the church； were the works which engrossed the
attention of men of letters for many centuries before
the invention of typography。 Useful as these books
may have been to the small class of readers for
whose benefit they were written； they were of no
use to a people who needed the elements of knowledge。〃
In the more ancient times； however； when MSS。 books
（rolls） were not quite so plentiful there was seemingly
no difficulty in obtaining large sums for them。
Aristotle； died B。 C。 322； paid for a few books of
Leusippus； the philosopher； three Attick talents； which
is about 3；000。 Ptolemy Philadelphus is said to have
given the Athenians fifteen talents； an exemption from
tribute and a large supply of provisions for the MSS。
of aeschylus； Sophocles and Euripides written by
themselves。
Arbuthnot； discussing this subject； remarks that Cicero's
head； 〃which should justly come into the account
of Eloquence brought twenty…five Myriads of
Drachms； which is the equivalent of 40；000。 Also；
〃the prices of the magical books mentioned to be
burnt in the Acts of the Apostles is five。 Myriads of
Pieces of Silver or Drachms。〃
Picolimini relates that the equivalent of eighty
golden crowns was demanded for a small