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his salt in a heap； and the Negro his dust in another； if there is not gold enough； the Moor takes away some of his salt； or the Negro adds more gold； till both parties are agreed。
But when a nation traffics with a great variety of merchandise； money becomes necessary； because a metal easily carried from place to place saves the great expenses which people would be obliged to be at if they always proceeded by exchange。
As all nations have reciprocal wants； it frequently happens that one is desirous of a large quantity of the other's merchandise； when the latter will have very little of theirs； though with respect to another nation the case is directly opposite。 But when nations have money； and proceed by buying and selling； those who take most merchandise pay the balance in specie。 And there is this difference； that； in the case of buying； the trade carried on is in proportion to the wants of the nation that has the greatest demands； while in bartering； the trade is only according to the wants of the nation whose demands are the fewest； without which the latter would be under an impossibility of balancing its accounts。
2。 Of the Nature of Money。 Money is a sign which represents the value of all merchandise。 Metal is taken for this sign； as being durable；＇1＇ because it is consumed but little by use； and because； without being destroyed； it is capable of many divisions。 A precious metal has been chosen as a sign； as being most portable。 A metal is most proper for a common measure； because it can be easily reduced to the same standard。 Every state fixes upon it a particular impression； to the end that the form may correspond with the standard and the weight； and that both may be known by inspection only。 The Athenians； not having the use of metals； made use of oxen；＇2＇ and the Romans of sheep； but one ox is not the same as another ox in the manner that one piece of metal may be the same as another。
A specie is the sign of the value of merchandise； paper is the sign of the value of specie； and when it is of the right sort； it represents this value in such a manner that as to the effects produced by it there is not the least difference。
In the same manner； as money is the sign and representative of a thing； everything is a sign and representative of money； and the state is in a prosperous condition when on the one hand money perfectly represents all things； and on the other all things perfectly represent money； and are reciprocally the sign of each other； that is； when they have such a relative value that we may have the one as soon as we have the other。 This never happens in any other than a moderate government； nor does it always happen there； for example； if the laws favour the dishonest debtor； his effects are no longer a representative or sign of money。 With regard to a despotic government； it would be a prodigy did things there represent their sign。 Tyranny and distrust make every one bury their specie；＇3＇ things therefore are not there the representative of money。
Legislators have sometimes had the art not only to make things in their own nature the representative of specie； but to convert them even into specie； like the current coin。 C？sar； when he was dictator； permitted debtors to give their lands in payment to their creditors； at the price they were worth before the civil war。＇4＇ Tiberius ordered that those who desired specie should have it from the public treasury on binding over their land to double the value＇5＇ Under C？sar the lands were the money which paid all debts； under Tiberius ten thousand sesterces in land became as current money equal to five thousand sesterces in silver。 The Magna Charta of England provides against the seizing of the lands or revenues of a debtor； when his movable or personal goods are sufficient to pay； and he is willing to give them up to his creditors； thus all the goods of an Englishman represent money。
The laws of the Germans constituted money a satisfaction for the injuries that were committed； and for the sufferings due to guilt。 But as there was but very little specie in the country； they again constituted this money to be paid in goods or chattels。 This we find appointed in a Saxon law； with certain regulations suitable to the ease and convenience of the several ranks of people。 At first the law declared the value of a sou in cattle；＇6＇ the sou of two tremises answered to an ox of twelve months； or to a ewe with her lamb； that of three tremises was worth an ox of sixteen months。 With these people money became cattle； goods； and merchandise； and these again became money。
Money is not only a sign of things； it is also a sign and representative of money； as we shall see in the chapter on exchange。
3。 Of ideal Money。 There is both real and ideal money。 Civilised nations generally make use of ideal money only； because they have converted their real money into ideal。 At first their real money was some metal of a certain weight and standard； but soon dishonesty or want made them retrench a part of the metal from every piece of money； to which they left the same name； for example； from a livre at a pound weight they took half the silver； and still continued to call it a livre； the piece which was the twentieth part of a pound of silver they continued to call a sou； though it is no more the twentieth part of this pound of silver。 By this method the livre is an ideal livre； and the sou an ideal sou。 Thus of the other subdivisions； and so far may this be carried that what we call a livre shall be only a small part of the original livre or pound； which renders it still more ideal。 It may even happen that we have no piece of money of the precise value of a livre； nor any piece exactly with a sou； then the livre and the sou will be purely ideal。 They may give to any piece of money the denomination of as many livres and as many sous as they please； the variation may be continual； because it is as easy to give another name to a thing as it is difficult to change the thing itself。
To take away the source of this abuse； it would be an excellent law for all countries who are desirous of making commerce flourish to ordain that none but real money should be current； and to prevent any methods from being taken to render it ideal。
Nothing ought to be so exempt from variation as that which is the common measure of all。 Trade is in its own nature extremely uncertain； and it is a great evil to add a new uncertainty to that which is founded on the nature of the thing。
4。 Of the Quantity of Gold and Silver。 While civilised nations are the mistresses of the world； gold and silver； whether they draw it from among themselves； or fetch it from the mines； must increase every day。 On the contrary； it diminishes when barbarous nations prevail。 We know how great was the scarcity of these metals when the Goths and Vandals on the one side； and on the other the Saracens and Tartars； broke in like a torrent on the civilised world。
5。 The same Subject continued。 The bullion drawn from the American mines； imported into Europe； and thence sent to the East； has greatly promoted the navigation of the European nations； for it is merchandise which Europe receives in exchange from America； and