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the more important cases absolutely require to be； controlled by the
unfavourable sentiments； and； when needful； by the active interference
of mankind。 The liberty of the individual must be thus far limited； he
must not make himself a nuisance to other people。 But if he refrains
from molesting others in what concerns them； and merely acts according
to his own inclination and judgment in things which concern himself；
the same reasons which show that opinion should be free； prove also
that he should be allowed； without molestation； to carry his
opinions into practice at his own cost。 That mankind are not
infallible； that their truths； for the most part； are only
half…truths； that unity of opinion； unless resulting from the
fullest and freest comparison of opposite opinions； is not
desirable； and diversity not an evil； but a good； until mankind are
much more capable than at present of recognising all sides of the
truth； are principles applicable to men's modes of action； not less
than to their opinions。 As it is useful that while mankind are
imperfect there should be different opinions； so it is that there
should be different experiments of living； that free scope should be
given to varieties of character； short of injury to others； and that
the worth of different modes of life should be proved practically；
when any one thinks fit to try them。 It is desirable； in short； that
in things which do not primarily concern others； individuality
should assert itself。 Where； not the person's own character； but the
traditions or customs of other people are the rule of conduct； there
is wanting one of the principal ingredients of human happiness； and
quite the chief ingredient of individual and social progress。
In maintaining this principle； the greatest difficulty to be
encountered does not lie in the appreciation of means towards an
acknowledged end； but in the indifference of persons in general to the
end itself。 If it were felt that the free development of individuality
is one of the leading essentials of well…being； that it is not only
a co…ordinate element with all that is designated by the terms
civilisation； instruction； education； culture； but is itself a
necessary part and condition of all those things； there would be no
danger that liberty should be undervalued； and the adjustment of the
boundaries between it and social control would present no
extraordinary difficulty。 But the evil is； that individual spontaneity
is hardly recognised by the common modes of thinking as having any
intrinsic worth； or deserving any regard on its own account。 The
majority； being satisfied with the ways of mankind as they now are
（for it is they who make them what they are）； cannot comprehend why
those ways should not be good enough for everybody； and what is
more； spontaneity forms no part of the ideal of the majority of
moral and social reformers； but is rather looked on with jealousy；
as a troublesome and perhaps rebellious obstruction to the general
acceptance of what these reformers； in their own judgment； think would
be best for mankind。 Few persons； out of Germany； even comprehend
the meaning of the doctrine which Wilhelm von Humboldt； so eminent
both as a savant and as a politician； made the text of a treatise…
that 〃the end of man； or that which is prescribed by the eternal or
immutable dictates of reason； and not suggested by vague and transient
desires； is the highest and most harmonious development of his
powers to a complete and consistent whole〃； that； therefore； the
object 〃towards which every human being must ceaselessly direct his
efforts； and on which especially those who design to influence their
fellow…men must ever keep their eyes； is the individuality of power
and development〃； that for this there are two requisites； 〃freedom；
and variety of situations〃； and that from the union of these arise
〃individual vigour and manifold diversity；〃 which combine themselves
in 〃originality。〃*
* The Sphere and Duties of Government； from the German of Baron
Wilhelm von Humboldt； pp。 11…13。
Little； however； as people are accustomed to a doctrine like that of
Von Humboldt； and surprising as it may be to them to find so high a
value attached to individuality； the question； one must nevertheless
think； can only be one of degree。 No one's idea of excellence in
conduct is that people should do absolutely nothing but copy one
another。 No one would assert that people ought not to put into their
mode of life； and into the conduct of their concerns； any impress
whatever of their own judgment； or of their own individual
character。 On the other hand； it would be absurd to pretend that
people ought to live as if nothing whatever had been known in the
world before they came into it； as if experience had as yet done
nothing towards showing that one mode of existence or of conduct； is
preferable to another。 Nobody denies that people should be so taught
and trained in youth as to know and benefit by the ascertained results
of human experience。 But it is the privilege and proper condition of a
human being； arrived at the maturity of his faculties； to use and
interpret experience in his own way。 It is for him to find out what
part of recorded experience is properly applicable to his own
circumstances and character。 The traditions and customs of other
people are； to a certain extent； evidence of what their experience has
taught them； presumptive evidence； and as such； have a claim to his
deference： but； in the first place； their experience may be too
narrow； or they may not have interpreted it rightly。 Secondly； their
interpretation of experience may be correct； but unsuitable to him。
Customs are made for customary circumstances and customary characters；
and his circumstances or his character may be uncustomary。 Thirdly；
though the customs be both good as customs； and suitable to him； yet
to conform to custom； merely as custom； does not educate or develop in
him any of the qualities which are the distinctive endowment of a
human being。 The human faculties of perception； judgment；
discriminative feeling； mental activity； and even moral preference；
are exercised only in making a choice。 He who does anything because it
is the custom makes no choice。 He gains no practice either in
discerning or in desiring what is best。 The mental and moral； like the
muscular powers； are improved only by being used。 The faculties are
called into no exercise by doing a thing merely because others do
it； no more than by believing a thing only because others believe
it。 If the grounds of an opinion are not conclusive to the person's
own reason； his reason cannot be strengthened； but is likely to be
weakened； by his adopting it： and if the inducements to an act are not
suc