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chalk； and study its outline closely in small sections； you will find the coarsest irregularities； but if you step far back and study the circle as a whole； its regular； perfect form becomes quite distinct。'' But the circle must be drawn carefully and correctly； and one must not give way to sentimentality and tears when running over a fly's legs in drawing。 Emil du Bois…Reymond＇1＇ says against this： ‘‘When the postmaster announces that out of 100；000 letters a year； exactly so and so many come unaddressed； we think nothing of the matterbut when Quetelet counts so and so many criminals to every 100；000 people our moral sense is aroused since it is painful to think that _*we_ are not criminals simply because somebody else has drawn the black spot。'' But really there is as little regrettable in this fact as in the observation that every year so and so many men break their legs； and so and so many diein those cases also； a large number of people have the good fortune not to have broken their legs nor to have died。 We have here the irrefutable logic of facts which reveals nothing vexatious。
＇1＇ Die sieben Weltrtsel。 Leipzig 1882。
On the other hand； there is no doubt that our criminal statistics； to be useful； must be handled in a rather different fashion。 We saw； in studying the statistics of suicide； that inferences with regard to individual cases could be drawn only when the material had been studied carefully and examined on all sides。 But our criminological statistic is rarely examined with such thoroughness； the tenor of such examination is far too bureaucratic and determined by the statutes and the process of law。 The criminalist gives the statistician the figures but the latter can derive no significant principles from them。 Consider for once any official report on the annual results in the criminal courts in any country。 Under and over the thousands and thousands of figures and rows of figures there is a great mass of very difficult work which has been profitable only in a very small degree。 I have before me the four reports of a single year which deal with the activities of the Austrian courts and criminal institutions； and which are excellent in their completeness； correctness； and thorough revision。 Open the most important；the results of the administration of criminal law in the various departments of the country；and you find everything recorded：how many were punished here and how many there； what their crimes were； the percentage of condemned according to age； social standing； religion； occupation； wealth； etc。； then again you see endless tables of arrests； sentences； etc。； etc。 Now the value of all this is to indicate merely whether a certain regularity is discoverable in the procedure of the officials。 Material psychologically valuable is rare。 There is some energetic approximation to it in the consideration of culture； wealth； and previous sentences； but even these are dealt with most generally； while the basis and motive of the death…sentence is barely indicated。 We can perceive little consideration of motives with regard to education； earlier life； etc。； in their relation to sentencing。 Only when statistics will be made to deal actually and in every direction with qualities and not merely with quantities will they begin to have a really scientific value。
Topic II。 KNOWLEDGE。 Section 34。
Criminal law； like all other disciplines； must ask under what conditions and when we are entitled to say ‘‘we know。'' The answer is far from being perennially identical； though it might have been expected that the conviction of knowledge would be ever united with identical conditions。 The strange and significant difference is determined by the question whether the verdict； ‘‘we know；'' will or will not have practical consequences。 When we discuss some question like the place of a certain battle； the temperature of the moon； or the appearance of a certain animal in the Pliocene； we first assume that there _*is_ a true answer； reasons for and against will appear； the former increase in number； and suddenly we discover in some book the assurance that； ‘‘We know the fact。'' That assurance passes into so and so many other books； and if it is untrue； no essential harm can be done。
But when science is trying to determine the quality of some substance； the therapeutic efficiency of some poison； the possibilities of some medium of communication； the applicability of some great national economic principle like free trade； then it takes much more time to announce； ‘‘We know that this is so and not otherwise。'' In this case one sees clearly that tremendous consequences follow on the practical interpretation of ‘‘we know；'' and therefore there is in these cases quite a different taxation of knowledge from that in cases where the practical consequences are comparatively negligible。
Our work is obviously one of concrete practical consequences。 It contains； moreover； conditions that make imperfect knowledge equivalent to complete ignorance； for in delivering sentence every ‘‘no'' may each time mean； ‘‘We know that he has not done it'' or again； ‘‘We know that it is not altogether certain that he has done it。'' Our knowledge in such cases is limited to the recognition of the confusion of the subject； and knowledge in its widest sense is the consciousness of some definite content； in this case； confusion。 Here； as everywhere； knowledge is not identical with truth； knowledge is only subjective truth。 Whoever knows； has reasons for considering things true and none against so considering them。 Here； he is entitled to assume that all who recognize his knowledge will justify it。 But； when even everybody justifies his knowledge； it can be justified only in its immediacy； to…morrow the whole affair may look different。 For this reason we criminalists assert much less than other investigators that we seek the truth； if we presume to such an assertion； we should not have the institutions of equity； revision； and； in criminal procedure； retrial。 Our knowledge； when named modestly； is only the innermost conviction that some matter is so and so according to human capacity； and ‘‘such and such a condition of things。'' Parenthetically； we agree that ‘‘such and such a condition of things'' may alter with every instant and we declare ourselves ready to study the matter anew if the conditions change。 We demand material； but relative truth。
One of the acutest thinkers； J。 R。 von Mayer； the discoverer of the working principle of ‘‘conservation of energy；'' says； ‘‘the most important； if not the only rule for real natural science is this： Always to believe that it is our task to know the phenomena before we seek explanation of higher causes。 If a fact is once known in all its aspects； it is thereby explained and the duty of science fulfilled。'' The author did not have us dry…souled lawyers in mind when he made this assertion； but we who modestly seek to subordinate our discipline to that of the correct one of natural science； must take this doctrine absolutely to heart。 Every crime we study is a fact； and once we know it in all its aspects and have accounted for every little detail； we have explained it and have done our duty。