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tio； the Ignorantia； etc。； belong to this class。 The purely logical mistakes or mistakes of syllogism do not enter into these considerations。
Section 33。 （k） Statistics of the Moral Situation。
Upon the first glance it might be asserted that statistics and psychology have nothing to do with each other。 If； however； it is observed that the extraordinary and inexplicable results presented by statistics of morals and general statistics influence our thought and reflection unconditionally； its importance for criminal psychology can not be denied。 Responsibility； abundance of criminals； their distribution according to time； place； personality； and circumstances； the regularity of their appearance； all these have so profound an influence upon us both essentially and circumstantially that even our judgments and resolutions； no less than the conduct and thought of other people whom we judge； are certainly altered by them。＇1＇ Moreover； probability and statistics are in such close and inseparable connection that we may not make use of or interpret the one without the other。 Eminent psychological contributions by Mnsterberg show the importance the statistical problems have for psychology。 This writer warns us against the over…valuation of the results of the statistics of morality； and believes that its proper tendencies will be discovered only much later。 In any event the real value of statistical synthesis and deduction can be discovered only when it is closely studied。 This is particularly true with regard to criminal conditions。 The works of many authors＇2＇ teach us things that would not otherwise be learned； and they would not be dealt with here if only a systematic study of the works themselves could be of use。 We speak here only of their importance for our own discipline。 Nobody doubts that there are mysteries in the figures and figuring of statistics。 We admit honestly that we know no more to…day than when Paul de Decker discussed Quetelet's labors in statistics of morality in the Brussels Academy of Science； and confessed what a puzzle it was that human conduct； even in its smallest manifestations； obeyed in their totality constant and immutable laws。 Concerning this curious fact Adolf Wagner says： ‘‘If a traveler had told us something about some people where a statute determines exactly how many persons per year shall marry； die； commit suicide； and crimes within certain classes；and if he had announced furthermore that these laws were altogether obeyed； what should we have said？ And as a matter of fact the laws are obeyed all the world over。''＇1＇
＇1＇ O。 Gross： Zur Phyllogenese der Ethik。 H。 Gross's Archiv； IX； 100。 ＇2＇ Cf。 B。 Foldes： Einuge Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik。 Zeitschrift f。 d。 yes。 Strafrechte…Wissenschaft； XI。 1891。 ＇1＇ Ncke： Moralische Werte。 Archiv； IX； 213
Of course the statistics of morality deal with quantities not qualities； but in the course of statistical examination the latter are met with。 So； e。 g。； examinations into the relation of crime to school… attendance and education； into the classes that show most suicides； etc。； connect human qualities with statistical data。 The time is certainly not far off when we shall seek for the proper view of the probability of a certain assumption with regard to some rare crime； doubtful suicide； extraordinary psychic phenomena； etc。； with the help of a statistical table。 This possibility is made clearer when the inconceivable constancy of some figures is considered。 Suppose we study the number of suicides since 1819 in Austria； in periods of eight years。 We find the following figures； 3000； 5000； 6000； 7000； 9000； 12000； 15000i。 e。； a regular increase which is comparable to law。＇2＇ Or suppose we consider the number of women； who； in the course of ten continuous years in France； shot themselves； we find 6； 6； 7； 7； 6； 6； 7； there is merely an alternation between 6 and 7。 Should not we look up if in some one year eight or nine appeared？ Should not we give some consideration to the possibility that the suicide is only a pretended one？ Or suppose we consider the number of men who have drowned themselves within the same time： 280； 285； 292； 276； 257； 269； 258； 276； 278； 287；Wagner says rightly of such figures ‘‘that they contain the arithmetical relation of the mechanism belonging to a moral order which ought to call out even greater astonishment than the mechanism of stellar systems。''
＇2＇ J。 Gurnhill： The Morals of Suicide。 London 1900。
Still more remarkable are the figures when they are so brought together that they may be seen as a curve。 It is in this way that Drobisch brings together a table which distributes crime according to age。 Out of a thousand crimes committed by persons between the ages of： AGAINST AGAINST PROPERTY PERSONS Less than 16 years 2 0。53
16…21 105 28
21…25 114 50
25…30 101 48
30 35 93 41
35…40 78 31
40…45 63 25
45…50 48 19
50…55 34 15
55…60 24 12
60 65 19 11
65…70 14 8
70…80 8 5 More than 80 2 2 …
Through both columns a definite curve may be drawn which grows steadily and drops steadily。 Greater mathematical certainty is almost unthinkable。 Of similar great importance is the parallelization of the most important conditions。 When； e。 g。； suicides in France； from 1826 to 1870 are taken in series of five years we find the figures 1739； 2263； 2574； 2951； 8446； 3639； 4002； 4661； 5147； if now during that period the population has increased from 30 to only 36 millions other determining factors have to be sought。＇1＇
＇1＇ Ncke in Archiv VI； 325； XIV； 366。
Again； most authorities as quoted by Gutberlet；＇2＇ indicate that most suicides are committed in June； fewest in December； most at night； especially at dawn； fewest at noon； especially between twelve and two o'clock。 The greatest frequency is among the half…educated； the age between sixty and seventy； and the nationality Saxon （Oettingen）。
＇2＇ K。 Gutberlet： Die Willensfreiheit u。 ihre Gegner。 Fulda 1893。
The combination of such observations leads to the indubitable conclusion that the results are sufficiently constant to permit making at least an assumption with regard to the cases in hand。 At present； statistics say little of benefit with regard to the individual； J。 S。 Mill is right in holding that the death…rate will help insurance companies but will tell any individual little concerning the duration of his life。 According to Adolf Wagner； the principal statistical rule is： The law has validity when dealing with great numbers； the constant regularity is perceivable only when cases are very numerous； single cases show many a variation and exception。 Quetelet has shown the truth of this in his example of the circle。 ‘‘If you draw a circle on the blackboard with thick chalk； and study its outline closely in small sections； you will find the coarsest irregularities； b