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cts； an important and well…grounded discipline must ensue。
The exceptionally acute psychiatrist Meynert shows＇1＇ how physiognomics depends on irradiation and parallel images。 He shows what a large amount of material having physiognomical contents we keep in mind。 Completely valueless as are the fixed forms by which mankind judges the voluntary acts of its individual members； they point to the universal conclusion that it is proper to infer from the voluntary acts of a person whose features correspond to those of another the voluntary acts of the other。 One of Hans Virchow's very detailed physiognomical observations concerning the expression of interest in the eyes by means of the pupil； has very considerable physiognomical value。 The pupil； he believes； is the gate through which our glance passes into the inner life of our neighbor； the psychical is already close at hand with the word ‘‘inner。'' How this occurs； why rather this and not another muscle is innervated in the development of a certain process； we do not know； but our ignorance does not matter； since ultimately a man might split his head thinking why we do not hear with our eyes and see with our ears。 But to some extent we have made observable progress in this matter。 As far back as 1840 J。 Mller＇2＇ wrote： ‘‘The reasons are unknown why various psychoses make use of different groups of nerves or why
＇1＇ Psychiatrie。 Vienna 1884。
＇2＇ J。 Mller： Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen。 1840。
certain facial muscles are related to certain passions。'' Gratiolet＇1＇ thought it necessary forty years ago to deny that muscles were developed merely for the purpose of expression。 Almost contemporaneously Piderit knew that expressive muscular movements refer partly to imaginary objects and partly to imaginary sense impressions。 In this fact lies the key to the meaning of all expressive muscular movements。 Darwin's epoch…making book on the expressions of the emotions finally established the matter so completely and firmly； that we may declare ourselves in possession of enough material for our purpose to make it possible to carry our studies further。 The study of this book of Darwin's I believe absolutely necessary to each criminalistfor he meets in every direction； expositions and explanations that are related to cases he has already experienced in practice or is sure to experience。 I present here only a few of Darwin's most important notes and observations in order to demonstrate their utility for our purpose。
As subjects for study he recommends children because they permit forms of expression to appear vigorously and without constraint； lunatics； because they are subject to strong passions without control； galvanized persons； in order to facilitate the muscles involved； and finally； to establish the identity of expression among all races of men and beasts。 Of these objects only children are important for our purpose。 The others either are far removed from our sphere of activity； or have only theoretic value。 I should； however； like to add to the subjects of observation another； viz。； the simple unstudied persons； peasants and such otherwise unspoiled individuals whom we may believe innocent of all intention to play a comedy with us。 We can learn much from such people and from children。 And it is to be believed that in studying them we are studying not a special class but are establishing a generally valid paradigm of the whole of mankind。 Children have the same features as adults only clearer and simpler。 For； suppose we consider any one of Darwin's dicta；e。 g。； that in the expression of anger and indignation the eyes shine； respiration becomes more rapid and intense； the nostrils are somewhat raised； the look misses the opponent； these so intensely characteristic indices occur equally in the child and the adult。 Neither shows more or fewer； and once we have defined them in the child we have done it for the adult also。 Once the physiognomy of children and simple people has been studied；
＇1＇ L。 P。 Gratiolet： De la Physiognomie et des Mouvements d'Expression。 Paris 1865。
the further study of different kinds of people is no longer difficult； there is only the intentional and customary masking of expression to look out for； for the rest； the already acquired principles； mutandis mutatis； are to be used。
Darwin posits three general principles on which most expressions and gestures are to be explained。 They are briefly：
I。 The principle of purposeful associated habits。
II。 The principle of contradication。
III。 The principle of the direct activity of the nervous system。
With regard to the first。 When； in the course of a long series of generations； any desire； experience； or disinclination； etc。； has led to some voluntary action； then； as often as the same or any analogous associated experience is undergone； there will arise a tendency to the realization of a similar action。 This action may no longer have any use but is inherited and generally becomes a mere reflex。
This becomes clearer when one notices how often habit facilitates very complex action：the habits of animals； the high steps of horses； the pointing of pointers； the sucking of calves； etc。 It is difficult for us in falling to make opposite movements to stretching out the arms； even in bed； we draw on our gloves unconsciously。 Gratiolet says： ‘‘Whoever energetically denies some point； etc。； shuts his eyes； if he assents he nods and opens his eyes wide。 Whoever describes a terrible thing shuts his eyes and shakes his head； whoever looks closely raises his eye…brows。 In the attempt to think the same thing is done or the eye…brows are contracted both make the glance keener。 Thence follows the reflex activity。''
With regard to the second。 Dogs who are quarrelling with cats assume the appearance of battleif they are kindly…minded they do the opposite； although this serves no purpose。 M。 Taylor＇1＇ says； that the gesture language of the Cistercians depends considerably on antithesis； e。 g。； shrugging the shoulders is the opposite of firmness； immovability。
With regard to the direct activity of the nervous system； examples are paling； trembling （fear； terror； pain； cold； fever； horror； joy）； palpitation of the heart； blushing； perspiring； exertion of strength； tears； pulling the hair； urinating； etc。 With these subdivisions it will be possible to find some thoroughfare and to classify every phenomenon。
We want to discuss a few more particulars in the light of Darwin's
＇1＇ Taylor： Early History of Mankind。
examples。 He warns us； first of all； against seeing＇1＇ certain muscle movements as the result of emotional excitement； because they were looked for。 There are countless habits； especially among the movements of the features； which happen accidentally or as the result of some passing pain and which have no significance。 Such movements are often of the greatest clearness； and do not permit the unexperienced observer to doubt that they have important meanings； although they have no relation whatever to any emotional condition。 Even if it is agreed only to depend on changes of the whole face； already established as having a definite meaning； there is still danger