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criminal psychology-第174章

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ce to artificial conditions。 Wundt has tried to simplify apparatus; and to bring experiment into connection with real life。 But there is still a far cry from the psychological laboratory to the business of life。 With regard to misunderstandings the case is certainly so。 Most occur when we do not hear distinctly what another person is saying and supplement it with our own notions。 Here the misunderstanding is in no sense linguistic; for words do not receive a false meaning。 The misunderstanding lies in the failure to comprehend the sense of what we have heard; and the substitution of incorrect interpretations。 Sometimes we may quite understand an orator without having heard every word by simply adding these interpretations; but the correctness of the additions is always questionable; and not only nature and training; but momentary conditions and personal attitude; make a considerable difference。 The worst thing about the matter is the fact that nobody is likely to be aware that he has made any interpretations。 Yet we do so not only in listening; but in looking。 I see on a roof in the distance four white balls about the nature of which I am uncertain。 While looking; I observe that one of the balls stretches out head and tail; flaps its wings; etc。; and I immediately think; ‘‘Oh; those are four pigeons。'' Now it may be true that they are four pigeons; but what justification had I for such an interpretation and generalization from the action of one pigeon? In this instance; no doubt; it would have been difficult for me to make a mistake; but there are many cases which are not so obvious and where the interpretation is nevertheless made; and then the misunderstanding  is ready to hand。 Once my wife and I saw from our seats in the car a chimney…sweep who stood in a railroad station。 As he bent over; looking for a lost coin; my very myopic wife cried out; ‘‘Look at the beautiful Newfoundland dog。'' Now this is a conceivable illusion for a short…sighted individual; but on what basis could my good lady interpret what she saw into the judgment that it was a Newfoundland dog; and a beautiful one at that? Taine illustrates a similar process with the story of a child who asked why his mother had put on a white dress。 He was told that his mother was going to a party and had to put on her holiday clothes for that purpose。 After that; whenever the child saw anybody in holiday attire; green or red or any other color; it cried out;‘‘Oh; you have a white dress on!'' We adults do exactly the same thing。 As Meinong says so well; we confuse identity with agreement。 This proposition would save us from a great many mistakes and misunderstandings if kept in mind。

How frequently and hastily we build things out is shown by a simple but psychologically important game。 Ask anybody at hand how the four and the six look on his watch; and let him draw it。 Everybody calmly draws; IV and VI; but if you look at your watch you will find that the four looks so; IIII; and that there is no six。 This raises the involuntary question; ‘‘Now what do we see when we look at the watch if we do not see the figures?'' and the further question; ‘‘Do we make such beautiful mistakes with all things?''

I assert that only that has been reliably seen which has been drawn。 My father asked my drawing teacher to teach me not to draw but to observe。 And my teacher; instead of giving me copies; followed the instruction by giving me first one domino; then two; then three; one upon the other; then a match box; a book; a candlestick; etc。 And even today; I know accurately only those objects in the household which I had drawn。 Yet frequently we demand of our witnesses minutely accurate descriptions of things they had seen only once; and hastily at that。

And even if the thing has been seen frequently; local and temporal problems may make great difficulties。 With regard to the first class of problems; Exner'1' cites the example of his journey from Gmunden to Vienna in which; because of a sharp curve in the road; he saw everything at Lambach reversed; although the whole stretch of road was familiar to him。 The railroad trains; the public buildings; the rivers; all the notable places seemed to lie on the wrong side。 This


'1' S。 Exner: Entwurf; etc。

 is particularly characteristic if a city is entered; especially at night; through a railroad terminal; and the locomotive is attached to the rear of the train。 In the daily life the alteration of objects by locations is familiar。 How different a landscape seems at night or in winter; although it has been observed hundreds of times during the day or in summer。 It is good to look around frequently on the road; particularly at cross…roads; if the way back is to be kept in mind。 Even the starting point may have a disturbing effect on the sense of place。 For example; if you have traveled numerous times on the train from A to B; and for once you start your journey from C; which is beyond A; the familiar stretch from A to B looks quite different and may even become unrecognizable。 The estimation of time may exercise considerable influence on such and similar local effects。 Under most circumstances we tend; as is known; to reduce subjectively great time…spans; and hence; when more time than customary is required by an event; this becomes subjectively smaller; not only for the whole event but also for each of its parts。 In this way what formerly seemed to extend through an apparently long period seems now to be compressed into a shorter one。 Then everything appears too soon and adds to the foreign aspect of the matter。

The case is similar for time…differences。 Uphues'1' cites an example: ‘‘If a person has not heard a bell or anything else for some time and then hears it again; the question whether the object existed in the interval does not arise。 It is recognized again and that is enough。'' Certainly it is enough for us; but whether the thing is true; whether really the same phenomena or only similar ones have been noted; is another question rarely asked。 If the man or the bell is the same that we now perceive anew; the inference is involuntarily drawn that they must have persisted; but we eliminate altogether the lapse of time and suppose unconsciously that the entity in question must have been on the spot through the whole period。 One needs only to observe how quickly witnesses tend to identify objects presented for identification: e。 g。 knives; letters; purses; etc。 To receive for identification and to say yes; is often the work of an instant。 The witness argues; quite unconsciously; in this fashion: ‘‘I have given the judge only one clew (perhaps different from the one in question); now here again is a clew; hence; it must be the one I gave him。'' That the matter may have changed; that there has been some confusion; that perhaps


'1' Die Wahrnehmung und Empfinding。 Leipzig 1888。

 other witnesses have given similar things; is not at all considered。 Here again we have to beware of confusing of identities with agreements。

Finally; we must consider fatigue and other conditions of excitation。 Everybody knows how things read late at night seem absolute nonsense; and become simple and obvious the next morning。 I
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