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require it of others； so that it is understood as only so required。 It may be due to the fact that education develops quiet imperturbability； and that this is conducive to correcter vision and more adequate objectivity in both events and obligations。
There is another series of processes which are characteristic of the point of view of the uneducated。 There is； e。 g。； a peculiar recurring mental process with regard to the careful use of life preservers； fire extinguishers； and other means of escape； which are to be used _*hastily_ in case of need。 They are found always carefully
＇1＇ Die Lehre vom Beweise。 Darmstadt 1843。
chained up； or hidden in closets by the ignorant。 This is possible only if the idea of protecting oneself against sudden need does not make itself effective as such； but is forced out of the mind by the desire to protect oneself against theft。
Why must the uneducated carefully feel everything that is shown them； or that they otherwise find to be new？ Children even smell such things； while educated people are satisfied with looking at them。 The request in public places； ‘‘Do not touch；'' has very good reason。 I believe that the level of culture of an individual may be determined without much mistake； by his inclination to touch or not to touch some new object presented him。 The reason for this desire can hardly be established but it is certainly the wish of the uneducated to study the object more fundamentally and hence； to bring into play other senses than that of sight。 It may be that the educated man sees more because he is better trained in careful observation； so that the uneducated man is really compelled to do more than merely to look。 On the other hand； it may be that the uneducated man here again fails to perceive the object as it is； and when it appears to him as object A； or is indicated as that object； he is inclined to disbelieve； and must convince himself by careful feeling that it is really an A。＇1＇ It may be； again； that ‘‘trains of association'' can help to explain the matter。
That an understanding of the character of an object is dependent on training and educated observation has been verified many times； incidentally； also by the fact that the uneducated find it difficult to get on with representations。 Now this can not be accounted for by only their defective practice。 The old； but instructive story of the peasant…woman who asked her son what he was reading； the black or the white； repeats itself whenever uneducated people are shown images； photographs； etc。 For a long time I had not noticed that they see the background as the thing to be attended to。 When； for example； you show an uneducated man a bust photograph； it may happen that he perceives the upper surroundings of shoulder and head as the lower contours of the background which is to indicate some fact； and if these contours happen to be； e。 g。； those of a dog； the man sees ‘‘a white dog。'' This is more frequent than we think； and hence； we must pay little attention to failures to recognize people in photographs。＇2＇ One more story by way of example that of a photographer who snapped a dozen parading young drag…
＇1＇ Cf H。 Gross's Archiv； II； 140； III； 350； VII； 155。
＇2＇ Cf H。 Gross's Archiv； VII； 160。
oons； and had gotten the addresses； but not the street numbers of their parents。 He sent for that reason to the twelve parents； for inspection； a photograph each with the notice that if some mistake had occurred he would rectify it。 But not a parent complained of the photographer's failure to have sent them the pictures of their own children。 Each had received a soldier； and appeared to be quite satisfied with the correctness of his image。 Hence it follows again； that denials of photographic identity by the uneducated are altogether without value。
In another direction images have a peculiar significance for children and ignorant people； because they show ineradicable ideas； particularly with regard to size。 Nobody recalls any book so vividly as his first picture book and its contents。 We remember it even though we are convinced that the people who made our picture book were quite mistaken。 Now； as it frequently happens that the sizes are incorrectly reproduced； as when； e。 g。； a horse and a reindeer occur in the same picture； and the latter seems bigger than the former； the reindeer appears in imagination always bigger。 It does not matter if we learn later how big a reindeer is； or how many times we have seen one； we still find the animal ‘‘altogether too small； it must be bigger than a horse。'' Educated adults do not make this mistake； but the uneducated do； and many false statements depend on ideas derived from pictures。 If their derivation is known we may discover the source of the mistake； but if the mistake occurred unconsciously； then we have to combine the circumstances and study further to find the reason。
Finally； the general influence of the failure of ignorant people to see things as they are； upon their feeling…tone is shown in two characteristic stories。 Bulwer tells of a servant whose master beat him and who was instigated to seek protection in court。 He refused indignantly inasmuch as his master was too noble a person to be subject to law。 And Gutberlet tells the story of the director of police； Serafini； in Ravenna； who had heard that a notorious murderer had threatened to shoot him。 Serafini had the assassin brought to him； gave him a loaded pistol and invited him to shoot。 The murderer grew pale and Serafini boxed his ears and kicked him out。
Section 87。 （3） _One…Sided Education_。
Just a few words about the considerable danger in the testimony presented by persons of one…sided education。 Altogether uneducated people warn us in their own way； but people who have a certain amount of training； in at least one direction； impress us to such a degree that we assume them to be otherwise also educated and thus get involved in mistakes。
It is hard to say correctly what constitutes an educated man。 We demand； of course； a certain amount of knowledge； but we do not know the magnitude of that amount of knowledge； and still less its subject matter。 It is remarkable that our time； which has devoted itself more than all others to natural science； does not include knowledge of such science in its concept of the educated man。 Some ignorance of history； or of the classics； or even of some modern novels； failure to visit the theaters and the picture exhibitions； neglect of French and English； etc。； classifies a man at once as lacking essential ‘‘culture。'' But if he knows these things； and at the same time exhibits in the most nave way an incredible ignorance of zology； botany； physics； chemistry； astronomy； etc。； he still remains ‘‘an educated man。'' The contradiction is inexplicable； but it exists； and because of it； nobody can definitely say what is meant by a one…sided education。 The extent of one…sidedness is； however； illustrated by many examples。 We mention only two。 Linnaeus' own drawings with remarks by Afzelius show that in spite of his extraordinary knowledge of botany and his wonderful memory； he did not know a foreign language。 He was in Holland for three