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rticular ideals； if they may be called ideals。
As a rule； we may hold that children have a certain sense of justice； and that they find it decidedly unpleasant to see anybody treated otherwise than he deserves。 But in this connection it must be considered that the child has its own views as to what a person's deserts are； and that these views can rarely be judged by our own。 In the same way it is certain that； lacking things to think or to trouble about； children are much interested in and remember well what occurs about them。 But； again； we have to bear in mind that the interest itself develops from the child's standpoint and that his memory constructs new events in terms of his earlier experiences。 As a rule； we may presuppose in his memory only what is found already in his occupations。 What is new； altogether new； must first find a function； and that is difficult。 If； now； a child remembers something； he will first try to fit it to some function of memory already present and this will then absorb the new fact； well or ill； as the case may be。 The frequent oversight of this fact is the reason for many a false interpretation of what the child said； he is believed to have perceived falsely and to have made false restatements； when he has only perceived and restated in his own way。
As children have rarely a proper sense of the value of life； they observe an undubitable death closely without much fear。 This explains many an unbelievable act of courage or clear observation in a child in cases where an adult； frightened； can see nothing。 It is； hence； unjust to doubt many a statement of children； because you doubt their ‘‘courage。'' ‘‘Courage'' was not in question at all。
Concerning the difference between boys and girls； Lbisch＇1＇ says rightly； that girls remember persons better； and boys； things。 He adds； moreover： ‘‘The more silent girl； who is given to observe
＇1＇ Lbisch： Entwicklungegeschichte der Seele des Kindes。 Vienna 1851。
what is before her； shows herself more teachable than the spiteful and also more imaginative boy who understands with difficulty because he is intended to be better grounded and to go further in the business of knowing。 The girl； all in all； is more curious； the boy； more eager to know。 What he fails in； what he is not spurred to by love or talent； he throws obstinately aside。 While the girl loyally and trustfully absorbs her teachings； the boy remains unsatisfied without some insight into the _why_ or _how_； without some proof。 The boy enters daily more and more into the world of concepts； while the girl thinks of objects not as members of a class； but as definite particular things。''
Section 80。 （2） _Children as Witnesses_。
Once； in an examination of the value of the testimony of children； I found it to be excellent in certain directions because not so much influenced by passion and special interest as that of adults； and because we may assume that children have classified too little rather than too much； that they frequently do not understand an event but perceive instinctively that it means disorder； and hence； become interested in it。 Later the child gets a broader horizon and understands what he has not formerly understood； although； possibly； not altogether with correctness。
I have further found that the boy just growing out of childhood； in so far as he has been well brought up； is especially the best observer and witness there is。 He observes everything that occurs with interest； synthesizes events without prejudice； and reproduces them accurately； while the girl of the same age is often an unreliable； even dangerous witness。 This is almost always the case when the girl is in some degree talented； impulsive； dreamy； romantic； and adventurous；she expresses a sort of weltschmerz connected with ennui。 This comes early； and if a girl of that age is herself drawn into the circle of the events in question； we are never safe from extreme exaggeration。 The merest larceny becomes a small robbery； a bare insult； a remarkable attack； a foolish quip； an interesting seduction； and a stupid； boyish conversation； an important conspiracy。 Such causes of mistakes are well…known to all judges； at the same time they are again and again permitted to recur。
The sole means of safety from them is the clearest comprehension possible of the mental horizon of the child in question。 We have very little general knowledge about it； and hence； are much indebted to the contemporary attempts of public…school teachers to supply the information。 We all know that we must make distinctions between city and country children； and must not be surprised at the country child who has not seen a gas…lamp； a railroad； or something similar。 Stanley Hall tried to discover from six year old children whether they really knew the things； the names of which they used freely。 It seemed； as a result； that 14％ of them had never seen a star； 45％ had never been in the country； 20％ did not know that milk came from a cow； 50％ that fire…wood comes from trees； 13％ to 15％ the difference between green； blue and yellow； and 4％ had never made the acquaintance of a pig。
Karl Lange made experiments （reported in ‘‘ber Apperzeption；'' Plauen； 1889） on 500 pupils in 33 schools in small towns。 The experiment showed that 82％ had never seen sun…rise； 77％ a sunset； 36％ a corn field； 49％ a river； 82％ a pond； 80％ a lock； 37％ had never been in the woods； 62％ never on the mountains； and 73％ did not know how bread was made from grain。 Involuntarily the question arises； what must be the position of the unfortunate children of large cities； and moreover； what may we expect to hear from children who do not know things like that； and at the same time speak of them easily？ Adults are not free from this difficulty either。 We have never yet seen a living whale； or a sandstorm in the Sahara； or an ancient Teuton； yet we speak of them confidently and profoundly； and never secure ourselves against the fact that we have never seen them。 Now； as we of the ancient Teuton； so children of the woods； neither have seen them； but one description has as much or as little value as the other。
Concerning the integration of senses； Binet and Henri＇1＇ have examined 7200 children； whom they had imitate the length of a model line； or pick out from a collection of lines those of similar length。 The latter experiment was extraordinarily successful。
The senses of children are especially keen and properly developed。 It is anatomically true that very young children do not hear well； but that is so at an age which can not be of interest to us。 Their sense of smell is； according to Heusinger； very dull； and develops at the time of puberty； but later observers； in particular those who； like Hack； Cloquet and others； have studied the sense of smell； say nothing about this。
Concerning the accuracy of representation in children authorities are contradictory。 Montaigne says that all children lie and are
＇1＇ Le Dmoire Visuelle chez les Enfants。 Rev。 Gen。 des Sciences V。 5。
obstinate。 Bourdin corroborates him。 Maudsley says that children often have illusions which seem to them indubitably real images； a