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in a process peculiar to itself。 Its aim is to become completely conscious of its own nature；
and to acquire this it must develop itself through its various phases。 The process of
development is from immediate to mediate； from what it is implicitly to what it is explicitly。
The first step therefore is reason as immediate…where universal self is simply and directly
aware of itself in the universal object。 The operation of concrete mind at this stage is found
where reason 〃observes〃。 The analysis of observation as this operates in the various
domain covered by the empirical sciences is thus the subject…matter of the following
section。 The processes of these various sciences are assumed in Hegel's analysis。
Observation must change in character with the objects observed； hence the difference
between observation of inorganic and organic nature； observation of mind； and of the
relation of mind and nature。 The difficulties reason has to face in this operation； and the
contradictions into which it falls in seeking to find laws； etc。； to satisfy its aim； form the
substance of the following analysis。
The nature of reason as here conceived is the source and origin of philosophical Idealism；
whether the idealism be one…sided or absolute。 Idealism is in fact the philosophical
expression of the principle of reason； just as the various empirical sciences may be said to
be the development； in the several ways which experience dictates； of the operation of
rational observation。 Hence the introductory pages of the following analysis are devoted to
a statement of the character of true and false idealism。
The historical material behind the abstract argument elaborated here is provided by the
awakened scientific spirit that appeared after the Reformation； and the methods and
results of the empirical sciences at the time Hegel wrote。 In particular the physiological
conceptions of 〃irritability〃； 〃sensibility〃 and 〃reproduction〃； discussed on p。 302 ff。； were
first formulated by Haller； Elementa Physiologiae （1757…66）。 For a list of the chief scientific
works which appeared shortly before or about the time the following analysis was written；
and which doubtless provided art of the material for the analysis； see Merz； History of
European Thought； Vol。 1； pp。 82…83。
The polemical criticism which runs through this as through almost every section of the work
is directed against the one…sided idealism of Hegel's predecessors and the imperfect
conception of scientific method displayed by the current science of nature。
V。 Certainty and Truth of Reason
A。 Observation as a function of Reason
a。 （1） Observation of Nature
（2） Observation of Organic Nature
b。 Observation of self…consciousness as self…consciousness； and as
standing in relation to external reality。 Logical and Psychological laws
Translator's comments： Observation can be directed upon the self…conscious process of
mind in two ways： it may consider the mind's thinking relation to reality； and it may
consider the mind's active or biotic relation to reality。 The result of observation here； as in
the foregoing cases； finds expression in a number of laws； which it 〃frames〃。 The 〃laws〃 in
the first case are 〃laws of thought〃 or connected logical laws： in the latter case we have
laws of psychic events； 〃psychological〃 laws。
The analysis in this section shows the inadequacy of observation as such to deal with its
material in both cases。 It fails in the first case because （1） 〃laws of thought〃 have no
meaning apart from the reality with which thought is necessarily concerned； laws of thought
are laws of 〃thinking〃； and thinking is both form and content： （2） observation gives each
law an absolute being of its own； as if it were detached from the unity of
self…consciousness； whereas this unity is the fundamental principle of each and all the
laws； which only exist in and by the single process of that unity。 Hence a type of logic
confined to 〃observing〃 laws of thought is necessarily untrue。 Observation again fails in the
second case because it is impossible to separate mind from its total environment。
Observational or empirical psychology therefore is incapable of giving an adequate account
of mind the constitution of the environment enters into and in part determines the
constitution of the psychic events； and the latter cannot be explained even as events
without interpreting the former at the same time。
（1） Laws of Thought
（2） Psychological Laws
（3） The Law of Indiviuality
c。Observation of self…consciousness to its immediate actuality。 Physiognomy
and Phrenology
Translator's comments： In the previous section observation was directed upon the relation of
mind to external reality — the natural environment of individuality。 The relation of mind to
its own physical embodiment furnishes a further object for observation to take up。 How
observation operates in dealing with this relation forms the subject of the analysis in the
present section。
Up to and at the time at which Hegel wrote； the discussion of this relation took the form of
what are now looked upon either as spurious sciences or at best as falling within the scope
of physiology or psychophysics。 Those pseudo…sciences were Physiognomy and Phrenology
or Cranioscopy。 Both had in one form or another engaged the attention of reflective minds
from the earliest times。 But about the latter half of the eighteenth century they gained
unusual public prominence； in Germany； France and England； through the eloquence and
conviction of their exponents； so much so that in Germany a law was passed forbidding the
promulgation of phrenology as being dangerous to religion； and in England a law of
George II re…enacted a statute of Elizabeth imposing the severest penalties on
physiognomists。 The chief exponents and propagandists of these studies of the human
individual were Lavater （1741…1801）； in physiognomy； and Gall （1758…1828）； along with
his pupil Spurzheim； in phrenology。 The personal character and influence of the first；
combined with his rhetorical eloquence； compelled the attention not only of the popular
mind but of men of outstanding intelligence； while Gall lectured publicly and went from one
University to another expounding the generalizations discovered or made。
It was impossible therefore for any philosopher