vill3-第22章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


on　that　such　expressions　as　'to　do　whatever　he　is　bid'　or　'whatever　the　lord　commands'　imply　a　complete　servility　of　the　tenant　and　unrestricted　power　on　the　part　of　the　lord　to　exploit　his　subordinate　according　to　his　pleasure。　Such　expressions　have　been　used　as　a　test　of　the　degree　of　subjection　of　the　villains　at　different　epochs；　it　has　been　contended；　that　the　earlier　our　evidence　is；　the　more　complete　the　lord's　sway　appears　to　be。（89*）　The　expressions　quoted　above　may　seem　at　first　glance　to　countenance　the　idea；　but　an　attentive　and　extended　study　of　the　documents　will　easily　show　that；　save　in　exceptional　cases；　the　earlier　records　are　by　no　means　harder　in　their　treatment　of　the　peasantry　than　the　later。　The　eleventh　century　is；　if　anything；　more　favourable　to　the　subjected　class　as　regards　the　imposition　of　labour…services　than　the　thirteenth；　and　we　shall　see　by…and…by　that　the　observation　applies　even　more　to　Saxon　times。　In　the　light　of　such　a　general　comparison；　we　have　to　explain　the　above…mentioned　phrases　in　a　different　way。　'Whatever　he　is　bid'　applies　to　the　quality　and　not　to　the　quantity　of　the　work。（90*）　It　does　not　mean　that　the　steward　has　a　right　to　order　the　peasant　about　like　a　slave；　to　tear　him　at　pleasure　from　his　own　work；　and　to　increase　his　burden　whenever　he　likes。　It　means　simply　that　such　and　such　a　virgater　or　cotter　has　to　appear　in　person　or　by　proxy　to　perform　his　weekwork　of　three　days；　or　two　days；　or　four　days；　according　to　the　case；　and　that　it　is　not　settled　beforehand　what　kind　of　work　he　is　to　perform。　He　may　have　to　plough；　or　to　carry；　or　to　dig　trenches；　or　to　do　anything　else；　according　to　the　bidding　of　the　steward。　A　similar　instance　of　uncertainty　may　be　found　in　the　expression　'without　measure'（91*）　which　sometimes　occurs　in　extents。　It　would　be　preposterous　to　construe　it　as　an　indication　of　work　to　be　imposed　at　pleasure。　It　is　merely　a　phrase　used　to　suit　the　case　when　the　work　had　to　be　done　by　the　day　and　not　by　a　set　quantity；　if；　for　instance；　a　man　had　to　plough　so　many　times　and　the　number　of　acres　to　be　ploughed　was　not　specified。　It　is　true　that　such　vague　descriptions　are　mostly　found　in　older　surveys；　but　the　inference　to　be　drawn　from　the　fact　is　simply　that　manorial　customs　were　developing　gradually　from　rather　indefinite　rules　to　a　minute　settlement　of　details。　There　is　no　difference　in　the　main　principle；　that　the　dependent　householder　was　not　to　be　treated　as　a　slave　and　had　a　customary　right　to　devote　part　of　his　time　to　the　management　of　his　own　affairs。　　　　　Another　point　is　to　be　kept　well　in　view。　The　whole　arrangement　of　a　manorial　survey　is　constructed　with　the　holding　as　its　basis。　The　names　of　virgaters　and　cotters　are　certainly　mentioned　for　the　sake　of　clearness；　but　it　would　be　wrong　to　consider　the　duties　ascribed　to　them　as　aiming　at　the　person。　John　Newman　may　be　said　to　hold　a　virgate；　to　join　with　his　plough…oxen　in　the　tillage　of　twenty　acres；　to　attend　at　three　boon…days　in　harvest　time；　and　so　forth。　It　would　be　misleading　to　take　these　statements　very　literally　and　to　infer　that　John　Newman　was　alone　to　use　the　virgate　and　to　work　for　it。　He　was　most　probably　married；　and　possibly　had　grown…up　sons　to　help　him；　very　likely　a　brother　was　there　also；　and　even　servants；　poor　houseless　men　from　the　same　village　or　from　abroad。　Every　householder　has　a　more　or　less　considerable　following　（sequela）；（92*）　and　it　was　by　no　means　necessary　for　the　head　of　the　family　to　perform　all　manorial　work　in　his　own　person。　He　had　to　appear　or　to　send　one　workman　on　most　occasions　and　to　come　with　all　his　people　on　a　few　days　　the　boon…days　namely。　The　description　of　the　precariae　is　generally　the　only　occasion　when　the　extents　take　this　into　account；　namely；　that　there　was　a　considerable　population　in　the　village　besides　those　tenants　who　were　mentioned　by　name。（93*）　I　need　not　point　out；　that　the　fact　has　an　important　meaning。　The　medieval　system；　in　so　far　as　it　rested　on　the　distribution　of　holdings；　was　in　many　respects　more　advantageous　to　the　tenantry　than　to　the　lord。　It　was　superficial　in　a　sense；　and　from　the　point　of　view　of　the　lord　did　not　lead　to　a　satisfactory　result；　he　did　not　get　the　utmost　that　was　possible　from　his　subordinates。　The　factor　of　population　was　almost　disregarded　by　it；　households　very　differently　constituted　in　this　respect　were　assumed　to　be　equal；　and　the　tenacity　of　custom　prevented　an　increase　of　rents　and　labour…services　in　proportion　to　the　growth　of　resource　and　wealth　among　the　peasants。　Some　attempts　to　get　round　these　difficulties　are　noticeable　in　the　surveys：　they　are　mostly　connected　with　the　regulation　of　boon…works。　But　these　exceptional　measures　give　indirect　proof　of　the　very　insufficient　manner　in　which　the　question　was　generally　settled。　　　　　The　liabilities　of　the　peasantry　take　the　shape　of　produce；　labour；　and　money…rents。　Almost　in　every　manor　all　three　kinds　of　impositions　are　to　be　found　split　up　into　a　confusing　variety　of　customary　obligations。　It　is　out　of　the　question　to　trace　at　the　present　time；　with　the　help　of　fragmentary　and　later　material；　what　the　original　ideas　were　which　underlie　these　complicated　arrangements。　But　although　a　reduction　to　simple　guiding　principles　accounting　for　every　detail　cannot　be　attempted；　it　is　easy　to　perceive　that　chance　and　fancy　were　not　everything　in　these　matters。　The　several　duties　are　brought　together　so　as　to　form　a　certain　whole；　and　some　of　the　aims　pursued　in　the　grouping　may　be　perceived　even　now。　　　　　The　older　surveys　often　show　the　operation　of　a　system　which　is　adapted　by　its　very　essence　to　a　very　primitive　state　of　society。　It　may　be　called　the　farm…system；　the　word　farm　being　used　in　the　original　sense　of　the　Saxon　feorm；　food；　and　not　in　the　later　meaning　of　fixed　rent；　although　these　two　meanings　appear　intimately　connected　in　history。　The　farm　is　a　quantity　of　produce　necessary　for　the　maintenance　of　the　lord's　household　during　a　certain　period：　it　may　be　one　night's　or　week's　or　one　fortnight's　farm　accordingly。　A　very　good　instance　of　the　system　may　be　found　in　an　ancient　cartulary　of　Ramsey；　now　at　the　British　Museum；　which　though　compiled　in　the　early　thirteenth　century；　constantly　refers　to　the　order　of　Henry　II's　time。　The　estates　of　the　abbey　were　taxed　in　such　a　way　as　to　yield　thirteen　full　farms　of　a　fortnight；　and　each　of　these　was　to　be　used　for　the　maintenance　of　the　monks　through　a　whole　month。　The　extension　of　the　period　is　odd　enough；　and　we　do　not　see　its　reason　clearly。　It　followed　probably　on　great　losses　in　property　and　income　at　the　time　of　Abbot　Walter。　However　this　may　be；　the　thirteen　fortnights'　farms　were　made　to　serve　all　the　year　round；　and　to　cover　fifty…two　weeks　instead　of　twenty…six。　A　very　minute　description　of　the　single　farm　is　given　as　it　was　paid　by　the　manor　of　Ayllington　（i。e。　Elton）。　Every　kind　of　produce　is　mentioned：　flour　and　bread；　beer　and　honey；　bacon；　cheese；　lambs；　geese；　chicken；　eggs；　butter；　&c。　The　price　of　each　article　is　mentioned　in　pence；　and　it　is　added；　that　four　pounds　have　to　be　paid　in　money。　By　the　side　of　the　usual　farm　there　appears　a　'lent'　farm　with　this　distinction；　that　only　ha