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Two years before the beginning of the Thirty Years War；
John Napier； a Scotchman； had published his little book which
described the new invention of logarithms。 During the war it…
self； Gottfried Leibnitz of Leipzig had perfected the system of
infinitesimal calculus。 Eight years before the peace of Westphalia；
Newton； the great English natural philosopher； was
born； and in that same year Galileo； the Italian astronomer；
died。 Meanwhile the Thirty Years War had destroyed the prosperity
of central Europe and there was a sudden but very general
interest in ‘‘alchemy；'' the strange pseudo…science of the
middle…ages by which people hoped to turn base metals into
gold。 This proved to be impossible but the alchemists in their
laboratories stumbled upon many new ideas and greatly helped
the work of the chemists who were their successors。
The work of all these men provided the world with a solid
scientific foundation upon which it was possible to build even
the most complicated of engines； and a number of practical
men made good use of it。 The Middle…Ages had used wood for
the few bits of necessary machinery。 But wood wore out
easily。 Iron was a much better material but iron was scarce
except in England。 In England therefore most of the smelting
was done。 To smelt iron； huge fires were needed。 In the
beginning； these fires had been made of wood； but gradually
the forests had been used up。 Then ‘‘stone coal'' （the petrified
trees of prehistoric times） was used。 But coal as you
know has to be dug out of the ground and it has to be transported
to the smelting ovens and the mines have to be kept
dry from the ever invading waters。
These were two problems which had to be solved at once。
For the time being； horses could still be used to haul the coal…
wagons； but the pumping question demanded the application
of special machinery。 Several inventors were busy trying to
solve the difficulty。 They all knew that steam would have to
be used in their new engine。 The idea of the steam engine was
very old。 Hero of Alexandria； who lived in the first century
before Christ； has described to us several bits of machinery
which were driven by steam。 The people of the Renaissance
had played with the notion of steam…driven war chariots。 The
Marquis of Worcester； a contemporary of Newton； in his book
of inventions； tells of a steam engine。 A little later； in the year
1698； Thomas Savery of London applied for a patent for a
pumping engine。 At the same time； a Hollander； Christian
Huygens； was trying to perfect an engine in which gun…powder
was used to cause regular explosions in much the same way as
we use gasoline in our motors。
All over Europe； people were busy with the idea。 Denis
Papin； a Frenchman； friend and assistant of Huygens； was
making experiments with steam engines in several countries。
He invented a little wagon that was driven by steam； and a
paddle…wheel boat。 But when he tried to take a trip in his
vessel； it was confiscated by the authorities on a complaint of
the boatmen's union； who feared that such a craft would deprive
them of their livelihood。 Papin finally died in London in
great poverty； having wasted all his money on his inventions。
But at the time of his death； another mechanical enthusiast；
Thomas Newcomen； was working on the problem of a new
steam…pump。 Fifty years later his engine was improved upon
by James Watt； a Glasgow instrument maker。 In the year
1777； he gave the world the first steam engine that proved of
real practical value。
But during the centuries of experiments with a ‘‘heat…engine；''
the political world had greatly changed。 The British
people had succeeded the Dutch as the common…carriers of the
world's trade。 They had opened up new colonies。 They took
the raw materials which the colonies produced to England；
and there they turned them into finished products； and then
they exported the finished goods to the four corners of the
world。 During the seventeenth century； the people of Georgia
and the Carolinas had begun to grow a new shrub which gave
a strange sort of woolly substance； the so…called ‘‘cotton wool。''
After this had been plucked； it was sent to England and there
the people of Lancastershire wove it into cloth。 This weaving
was done by hand and in the homes of the workmen。 Very soon
a number of improvements were made in the process of weaving。
In the year 1730； John Kay invented the ‘‘fly shuttle。''
In 1770； James Hargreaves got a patent on his ‘‘spinning
jenny。'' Eli Whitney； an American； invented the cotton…gin；
which separated the cotton from its seeds； a job which had
previously been done by hand at the rate of only a pound a day。
Finally Richard Arkwright and the Reverend Edmund Cartwright
invented large weaving machines； which were driven by
water power。 And then； in the eighties of the eighteenth
century； just when the Estates General of France had begun
those famous meetings which were to revolutionise the political
system of Europe； the engines of Watt were arranged in such
a way that they could drive the weaving machines of Arkwright；
and this created an economic and social revolution
which has changed human relationship in almost every part
of the world。
As soon as the stationary engine had proved a success； the
inventors turned their attention to the problem of propelling
boats and carts with the help of a mechanical contrivance。
Watt himself designed plans for a ‘‘steam locomotive；'' but
ere he had perfected his ideas； in the year 1804； a locomotive
made by Richard Trevithick carried a load of twenty tons at
Pen…y…darran in the Wales mining district。
At the same time an American jeweller and portrait…painter
by the name of Robert Fulton was in Paris； trying to convince
Napoleon that with the use of his submarine boat； the
‘‘Nautilus；'' and his ‘‘steam…boat；'' the French might be able to
destroy the naval supremacy of England。
Fulton's idea of a steamboat was not original。 He had
undoubtedly copied it from John Fitch； a mechanical genius of
Connecticut whose cleverly constructed steamer had first navigated
the Delaware river as early as the year 1787。 But Napoleon
and his scientific advisers did not believe in the practical
possibility of a self…propelled boat； and although the Scotch…
built engine of the little craft puffed merrily on the Seine； the
great Emperor neglected to avail himself of this formidable
weapon which might have given him his revenge for Trafalgar。
As for Fulton； he returned to the United States and； being
a practical man of business； he organised a successful steamboat
company together with Robert R。 Livingston； a signer of
the Declaration of Independence； who was American Minister
to France when Fulton was in Paris； trying to sell his invention。
The first steamer of this new company； the ‘‘Clermont；''
which was given a monopoly of all the waters of New York
State； equipped with an engine built by Boulto