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great historical discoveries。 Everywhere historians were busy
publishing mediaeval charters and early mediaeval chronicles
and in every country the result was a new pride in the old
fatherland。 A great deal of this sentiment was based upon the
wrong interpretation of historical facts。 But in practical politics；
it does not matter what is true； but everything depends
upon what the people believe to be true。 And in most countries
both the kings and their subjects firmly believed in the glory
and fame of their ancestors。
The Congress of Vienna was not inclined to be sentimental。
Their Excellencies divided the map of Europe according to the
best interests of half a dozen dynasties and put ‘‘national
aspirations'' upon the Index； or list of forbidden books； together
with all other dangerous ‘‘French doctrines。''
But history is no respecter of Congresses。 For some reason
or other （it may be an historical law； which thus far has
escaped the attention of the scholars） ‘‘nations'' seemed to be
necessary for the orderly development of human society and
the attempt to stem this tide was quite as unsuccessful as the
Metternichian effort to prevent people from thinking。
Curiously enough the first trouble began in a very distant
part of the world； in South America。 The Spanish colonies
of that continent had been enjoying a period of relative independence
during the many years of the great Napoleonic wars。
They had even remained faithful to their king when he was
taken prisoner by the French Emperor and they had refused
to recognise Joseph Bonaparte； who had in the year 1808 been
made King of Spain by order of his brother。
Indeed； the only part of America to get very much upset
by the Revolution was the island of Haiti； the Espagnola of
Columbus' first trip。 Here in the year 1791 the French Convention；
in a sudden outburst of love and human brotherhood；
had bestowed upon their black brethren all the privileges hitherto
enjoyed by their white masters。 Just as suddenly they had
repented of this step； but the attempt to undo the original
promise led to many years of terrible warfare between General
Leclerc； the brother…in…law of Napoleon； and Toussaint l'Ouverture；
the negro chieftain。 In the year 1801； Toussaint was
asked to visit Leclerc and discuss terms of peace。 He received
the solemn promise that he would not be molested。 He trusted
his white adversaries； was put on board a ship and shortly
afterwards died in a French prison。 But the negroes gained
their independence all the same and founded a Republic。
Incidentally they were of great help to the first great South
American patriot in his efforts to deliver his native country
from the Spanish yoke。
Simon Bolivar； a native of Caracas in Venezuela； born in
the year 1783； had been educated in Spain； had visited Paris
where he had seen the Revolutionary government at work； had
lived for a while in the United States and had returned to his
native land where the widespread discontent against Spain；
the mother country； was beginning to take a definite form。
In the year 1811； Venezuela declared its independence and
Bolivar became one of the revolutionary generals。 Within
two months； the rebels were defeated and Bolivar fled。
For the next five years he was the leader of an apparently
lost cause。 He sacrificed all his wealth and he would not have
been able to begin his final and successful expedition without
the support of the President of Haiti。 Thereafter the revolt
spread all over South America and soon it appeared that Spain
was not able to suppress the rebellion unaided。 She asked for
the support of the Holy Alliance。
This step greatly worried England。 The British shippers
had succeeded the Dutch as the Common Carriers of the world
and they expected to reap heavy profits from a declaration of
independence on the part of all South America。 They had
hopes that the United States o？America would interfere but
the Senate had no such plans and in the House； too； there were
many voices which declared that Spain ought to be given a
free hand。
Just then； there was a change of ministers in England。
The Whigs went out and the Tories came in。 George Canning
became secretary of State。 He dropped a hint that England
would gladly back up the American government with all the
might of her fleet； if said government would declare its
disapproval of the plans of the Holy Alliance in regard to the
rebellious colonies of the southern continent。 President Monroe
thereupon； on the 2nd of December of the year 1823； addressed
Congress and stated that： ‘‘America would consider
any attempt on the part of the allied powers to extend their
system to any portion of this western hemisphere as dangerous
to our peace and safety；'' and gave warning that ‘‘the American
government would consider such action on the part of the
Holy Alliance as a manifestation of an unfriendly disposition
toward the United States。'' Four weeks later； the text of the
‘‘Monroe Doctrine'' was printed in the English newspapers and
the members of the Holy Alliance were forced to make their
choice。
Metternich hesitated。 Personally he would have been willing
to risk the displeasure of the United States （which had
allowed both its army and navy to fall into neglect since the end
of the Anglo…American war of the year 1812。） But Canning's
threatening attitude and trouble on the continent forced him
to be careful。 The expedition never took place and South
America and Mexico gained their independence。
As for the troubles on the continent of Europe； they were
coming fast and furious。 The Holy Alliance had sent French
troops to Spain to act as guardians of the peace in the year
1820。 Austrian troops had been used for a similar purpose in
Italy when the ‘‘Carbonari'' （the secret society of the Charcoal
Burners） were making propaganda for a united Italy and had
caused a rebellion against the unspeakable Ferdinand of
Naples。
Bad news also came from Russia where the death of Alexander
had been the sign for a revolutionary outbreak in St。
Petersburg； a short but bloody upheaval； the so…called Dekaberist
revolt （because it took place in December；） which ended
with the hanging of a large number of good patriots who had
been disgusted by the reaction of Alexander's last years and
had tried to give Russia a constitutional form of government。
But worse was to follow。 Metternich had tried to assure
himself of the continued support of the European courts by a
series of conferences at Aix…la…Chapelle at Troppau at
Laibach and finally at Verona。 The delegates from the
different powers duly travelled to these agreeable watering
places where the Austrian prime minister used to spend
his summers。 They always promised to do their best
to suppress revolt but they were none too certain of their
success。 The spirit of the people was beginning to be ugly and
especially in France the positi