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and in their place resurrected several old principalities
which were given to deserving members； both male and female；
of the Habsburg family。
The poor Spaniards； who had started the great nationalistic
revolt against Napoleon； and who had sacrificed the best blood
of the country for their king； were punished severely when the
Congress allowed His Majesty to return to his domains。 This
vicious creature； known as Ferdinand VII； had spent the last
four years of his life as a prisoner of Napoleon。 He had improved
his days by knitting garments for the statues of his
favourite patron saints。 He celebrated his return by re…introducing
the Inquisition and the torture…chamber； both of which
had been abolished by the Revolution。 He was a disgusting
person； despised as much by his subjects as by his four wives；
but the Holy Alliance maintained him upon his legitimate
throne and all efforts of the decent Spaniards to get rid of this
curse and make Spain a constitutional kingdom ended in
bloodshed and executions。
Portugal had been without a king since the year 1807 when
the royal family had fled to the colonies in Brazil。 The country
had been used as a base of supply for the armies of
Wellington during the Peninsula war； which lasted from 1808
until 1814。 After 1815 Portugal continued to be a sort of
British province until the house of Braganza returned to the
throne； leaving one of its members behind in Rio de Janeiro
as Emperor of Brazil； the only American Empire which lasted
for more than a few years； and which came to an end in 1889
when the country became a republic。
In the east； nothing was done to improve the terrible conditions
of both the Slavs and the Greeks who were still subjects
of the Sultan。 In the year 1804 Black George； a Servian
swineherd； （the founder of the Karageorgevich dynasty） had
started a revolt against the Turks； but he had been defeated
by his enemies and had been murdered by one of his supposed
friends； the rival Servian leader； called Milosh Obrenovich；
（who became the founder of the Obrenovich dynasty） and the
Turks had continued to be the undisputed masters of the
Balkans。
The Greeks； who since the loss of their independence； two
thousand years before； had been subjects of the Macedonians；
the Romans； the Venetians and the Turks； had hoped that their
countryman； Capo d'Istria； a native of Corfu and together
with Czartoryski； the most intimate personal friends of
Alexander； would do something for them。 But the Congress
of Vienna was not interested in Greeks； but was very much
interested in keeping all ‘‘legitimate'' monarchs； Christian；
Moslem and otherwise； upon their respective thrones。 Therefore
nothing was done。
The last； but perhaps the greatest blunder of the Congress
was the treatment of Germany。 The Reformation and the
Thirty Years War had not only destroyed the prosperity of the
country； but had turned it into a hopeless political rubbish
heap； consisting of a couple of kingdoms； a few grand…duchies；
a large number of duchies and hundreds of margravates； principalities；
baronies； electorates； free cities and free villages；
ruled by the strangest assortment of potentates that was ever
seen off the comic opera stage。 Frederick the Great had
changed this when he created a strong Prussia； but this state
had not survived him by many years。
Napoleon had blue…penciled the demand for independence
of most of these little countries； and only fifty…two out of a
total of more than three hundred had survived the year 1806。
During the years of the great struggle for independence； many
a young soldier had dreamed of a new Fatherland that should
be strong and united。 But there can be no union without a
strong leadership； and who was to be this leader？
There were five kingdoms in the German speaking lands。
The rulers of two of these； Austria and Prussia； were kings by
the Grace of God。 The rulers of three others； Bavaria； Saxony
and Wurtemberg； were kings by the Grace of Napoleon； and
as they had been the faithful henchmen of the Emperor； their
patriotic credit with the other Germans was therefore not very
good。
The Congress had established a new German Confederation；
a league of thirty…eight sovereign states； under the chairmanship
of the King of Austria； who was now known as the
Emperor of Austria。 It was the sort of make…shift arrangement
which satisfied no one。 It is true that a German Diet；
which met in the old coronation city of Frankfort。 had been
created to discuss matters of ‘‘common policy and importance。''
But in this Diet； thirty…eight delegates represented thirty…eight
different interests and as no decision could be taken without a
unanimous vote （a parliamentary rule which had in previous
centuries ruined the mighty kingdom of Poland）； the famous
German Confederation became very soon the laughing stock
of Europe and the politics of the old Empire began to resemble
those of our Central American neighbours in the forties and
the fifties of the last century。
It was terribly humiliating to the people who had sacrificed
everything for a national ideal。 But the Congress was not
interested in the private feelings of ‘‘subjects；'' and the debate
was closed。
Did anybody object？ Most assuredly。 As soon as the first
feeling of hatred against Napoleon had quieted downas soon
as the enthusiasm of the great war had subsidedas soon as
the people came to a full realisation of the crime that had been
committed in the name of ‘‘peace and stability'' they began to
murmur。 They even made threats of open revolt。 But what
could they do？ They were powerless。 They were at the mercy
of the most pitiless and efficient police system the world had
ever seen。
The members of the Congress of Vienna honestly and sincerely
believed that ‘‘the Revolutionary Principle had led to
the criminal usurpation of the throne by the former emperor
Napoleon。'' They felt that they were called upon to eradicate
the adherents of the so…called ‘‘French ideas'' just as Philip II
had only followed the voice of his conscience when he burned
Protestants or hanged Moors。 In the beginning of the sixteenth
century a man who did not believe in the divine right
of the Pope to rule his subjects as he saw fit was a ‘‘heretic''
and it was the duty of all loyal citizens to kill him。 In the
beginning of the nineteenth century； on the continent of Europe；
a man who did not believe in the divine right of his king to
rule him as he or his Prime Minister saw fit； was a ‘‘heretic；'' and
it was the duty of all loyal citizens to denounce him to the nearest
policeman and see that he got punished。
But the rulers of the year 1815 had learned efficiency in
the school of Napoleon and they performed their task much
better than it had been done in the year 1517。 The period
between the year 1815 and the year 1860 was the great era of
the political spy。 Spies were everywhere。 They l