按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
from the king down to the lowest of his six hundred
pastry cooks； the book immediately went through four
editions and assured the writer thousands of readers for his
famous discussion of the ‘‘Spirit of the Laws'' in which the
noble Baron compared the excellent English system with the
backward system of France and advocated instead of an absolute
monarchy the establishment of a state in which the Executive；
the Legislative and the Judicial powers should be in
separate hands and should work independently of each other。
When Lebreton； the Parisian book…seller； announced that
Messieurs Diderot； d'Alembert； Turgot and a score of other
distinguished writers were going to publish an Encyclopaedia
which was to contain ‘‘all the new ideas and the new science
and the new knowledge；'' the response from the side of the
public was most satisfactory； and when after twenty…two years
the last of the twenty…eight volumes had been finished； the
somewhat belated interference of the police could not repress
the enthusiasm with which French society received this most
important but very dangerous contribution to the discussions
of the day。
Here； let me give you a little warning。 When you read a
novel about the French revolution or see a play or a movie；
you will easily get the impression that the Revolution was the
work of the rabble from the Paris slums。 It was nothing
of the kind。 The mob appears often upon the ‘‘evolutionary
stage； but invariably at the instigation and under the
leadership of those middle…class professional men who used the
hungry multitude as an efficient ally in their warfare upon
the king and his court。 But the fundamental ideas which
caused the revolution were invented by a few brilliant minds；
and they were at first introduced into the charming drawing…rooms
of the ‘‘Ancien Regime'' to provide amiable diversion
for the much…bored ladies and gentlemen of his Majesty's court。
These pleasant but careless people played with the dangerous
fireworks of social criticism until the sparks fell through
the cracks of the floor； which was old and rotten just
like the rest of the building。 Those sparks unfortunately
landed in the basement where age…old rubbish lay in great
confusion。 Then there was a cry of fire。 But the owner of
the house who was interested in everything except the management
of his property； did not know how to put the small blaze
out。 The flame spread rapidly and the entire edifice was consumed
by the conflagration； which we call the Great French Revolution。
For the sake of convenience； we can divide the French
Revolution into two parts。 From 1789 to 1791 there was a
more or less orderly attempt to introduce a constitutional
monarchy。 This failed； partly through lack of good faith and
stupidity on the part of the monarch himself； partly through
circumstances over which nobody had any control。
From 1792 to 1799 there was a Republic and a first effort
to establish a democratic form of government。 But the actual
outbreak of violence had been preceded by many years of
unrest and many sincere but ineffectual attempts at reform。
When France had a debt of 4000 million francs and the
treasury was always empty and there was not a single thing
upon which new taxes could be levied； even good King Louis
（who was an expert locksmith and a great hunter but a very
poor statesman） felt vaguely that something ought to be done。
Therefore he called for Turgot； to be his Minister of Finance。
Anne Robert Jacques Turgot； Baron de l'Aulne； a man in the
early sixties； a splendid representative of the fast disappearing
class of landed gentry； had been a successful governor of a
province and was an amateur political economist of great ability。
He did his best。 Unfortunately； he could not perform
miracles。 As it was impossible to squeeze more taxes out of
the ragged peasants； it was necessary to get the necessary funds
from the nobility and clergy who had never paid a centime。
This made Turgot the best hated man at the court of Versailles。
Furthermore he was obliged to face the enmity of Marie
Antoinette； the queen； who was against everybody who dared
to mention the word ‘‘economy'' within her hearing。 Soon
Turgot was called an ‘‘unpractical visionary'' and a ‘‘theoretical…
professor'' and then of course his position became untenable。
In the year 1776 he was forced to resign。
After the ‘‘professor'' there came a man of Practical Business
Sense。 He was an industrious Swiss by the name of
Necker who had made himself rich as a grain speculator and
the partner in an international banking house。 His ambitious
wife had pushed him into the government service that she
might establish a position for her daughter who afterwards as
the wife of the Swedish minister in Paris； Baron de Stael；
became a famous literary figure of the early nineteenth century。
Necker set to work with a fine display of zeal just as Turgot
had done。 In 1781 he published a careful review of the French
finances。 The king understood nothing of this ‘‘Compte
Rendu。'' He had just sent troops to America to help the colonists
against their common enemies； the English。 This expedition
proved to be unexpectedly expensive and Necker was
asked to find the necessary funds。 When instead of producing
revenue； he published more figures and made statistics
and began to use the dreary warning about ‘‘necessary economies''
his days were numbered。 In the year 1781 he was
dismissed as an incompetent servant。
After the Professor and the Practical Business Man came
the delightful type of financier who will guarantee everybody
100 per cent。 per month on their money if only they will
trust his own infallible system。
He was Charles Alexandre de Calonne； a pushing official；
who had made his career both by his industry and his
complete lack of honesty and scruples。 He found the country
heavily indebted； but he was a clever man； willing to oblige
everybody； and he invented a quick remedy。 He paid the
old debts by contracting new ones。 This method is not new。
The result since time immemorial has been disastrous。 In
less than three years more than 800；000；000 francs had been
added to the French debt by this charming Minister of Finance
who never worried and smilingly signed his name to every
demand that was made by His Majesty and by his lovely
Queen； who had learned the habit of spending during the days
of her youth in Vienna。
At last even the Parliament of Paris （a high court of justice
and not a legislative body） although by no means lacking
in loyalty to their sovereign； decided that something must be
done。 Calonne wanted to borrow another 80；000；000 francs。
It had been a bad year for the crops and the misery and hunger
in the country districts were terrible。 Unless something sensible
were done； France would go bankrupt。 The King as always
was unaware of the seriousness of the situation。 Would it not
be a good idea to consu