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ful while the old Russian elements had a rallying point in the
town of Moscow； Peter decided to move his government to a
new capital。 Amidst the unhealthy marshes of the Baltic Sea
the Tsar built this new city。 He began to reclaim the land in
the year 1703。 Forty thousand peasants worked for years
to lay the foundations for this Imperial city。 The Swedes
attacked Peter and tried to destroy his town and illness and
misery killed tens of thousands of the peasants。 But the work
was continued； winter and summer； and the ready…made town
soon began to grow。 In the year 1712； it was officially de…
clared to be the ‘‘Imperial Residence。'' A dozen years later
it had 75；000 inhabitants。 Twice a year the whole city was
flooded by the Neva。 But the terrific will…power of the Tsar
created dykes and canals and the floods ceased to do harm。
When Peter died in 1725 he was the owner of the largest city
in northern Europe。
Of course； this sudden growth of so dangerous a rival had
been a source of great worry to all the neighbours。 From his
side； Peter had watched with interest the many adventures of
his Baltic rival； the kingdom of Sweden。 In the year 1654；
Christina； the only daughter of Gustavus Adolphus； the hero
of the Thirty Years War； had renounced the throne and had
gone to Rome to end her days as a devout Catholic。 A Protestant
nephew of Gustavus Adolphus had succeeded the last
Queen of the House of Vasa。 Under Charles X and Charles
XI； the new dynasty had brought Sweden to its highest point
of development。 But in 1697； Charles XI died suddenly and
was succeeded by a boy of fifteen； Charles XII。
This was the moment for which many of the northern states
had waited。 During the great religious wars of the seventeenth
century； Sweden had grown at the expense of her neighbours。
The time had come； so the owners thought； to balance the account。
At once war broke out between Russia； Poland； Denmark
and Saxony on the one side； and Sweden on the other。
The raw and untrained armies of Peter were disastrously beaten
by Charles in the famous battle of Narva in November of
the year 1700。 Then Charles； one of the most interesting military
geniuses of that century； turned against his other enemies
and for nine years he hacked and burned his way through the
villages and cities of Poland； Saxony； Denmark and the Baltic
provinces； while Peter drilled and trained his soldiers in distant
Russia。
As a result； in the year 1709； in the battle of Poltawa； the
Moscovites destroyed the exhausted armies of Sweden。 Charles
continued to be a highly picturesque figure； a wonderful hero
of romance； but in his vain attempt to have his revenge； he
ruined his own country。 In the year 1718； he was accidentally
killed or assassinated （we do not know which） and when peace
was made in 1721； in the town of Nystadt； Sweden had lost all
of her former Baltic possessions except Finland。 The new
Russian state； created by Peter； had become the leading power
of northern Europe。 But already a new rival was on the
way。 The Prussian state was taking shape。
THE RISE OF PRUSSIA
THE EXTRAORDINARY RISE OF A LITTLE
STATE IN A DREARY PART OF NORTHERN
GERMANY； CALLED PRUSSIA
THE history of Prussia is the history of a frontier district。
In the ninth century； Charlemagne had transferred the old
centre of civilisation from the Mediterranean to the wild regions
of northwestern Europe。 His Frankish soldiers had pushed
the frontier of Europe further and further towards the east。
They had conquered many lands from the heathenish Slavs and
Lithuanians who were living in the plain between the Baltic
Sea and the Carpathian Mountains； and the Franks administered
those outlying districts just as the United States used
to administer her territories before they achieved the dignity
of statehood。
The frontier state of Brandenburg had been originally
founded by Charlemagne to defend his eastern possessions
against raids of the wild Saxon tribes。 The Wends； a Slavic
tribe which inhabited that region； were subjugated during the
tenth century and their market…place； by the name of Brennabor；
became the centre of and gave its name to the new province
of Brandenburg。
During the eleventh； twelfth； thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries； a succession of noble families exercised the functions of
imperial governor in this frontier state。 Finally in the
fifteenth century； the House of Hohenzollern made its appear…
ance； and as Electors of Brandenburg； commenced to change a
sandy and forlorn frontier territory into one of the most efficient
empires of the modern world。
These Hohenzollerns； who have just been removed from
the historical stage by the combined forces of Europe and
America； came originally from southern Germany。 They were
of very humble origin。 In the twelfth century a certain Frederick
of Hohenzollern had made a lucky marriage and had been
appointed keeper of the castle of Nuremberg。 His descendants
had used every chance and every opportunity to improve their
power and after several centuries of watchful grabbing； they
had been appointed to the dignity of Elector； the name given to
those sovereign princes who were supposed to elect the Emperors
of the old German Empire。 During the Reformation；
they had taken the side of the Protestants and the early
seventeenth century found them among the most powerful of the
north German princes。
During the Thirty Years War； both Protestants and
Catholics had plundered Brandenburg and Prussia with equal
zeal。 But under Frederick William； the Great Elector； the
damage was quickly repaired and by a wise and careful use of
all the economic and intellectual forces of the country； a state
was founded in which there was practically no waste。
Modern Prussia； a state in which the individual and his
wishes and aspirations have been entirely absorbed by the
interests of the community as a whole this Prussia dates back
to the father of Frederick the Great。 Frederick William I was
a hard working； parsimonious Prussian sergeant； with a great
love for bar…room stories and strong Dutch tobacco； an intense
dislike of all frills and feathers； （especially if they were of
French origin；） and possessed of but one idea。 That idea was
Duty。 Severe with himself； he tolerated no weakness in his
subjects； whether they be generals or common soldiers。 The
relation between himself and his son Frederick was never cordial；
to say the least。 The boorish manners of the father offended
the finer spirit of the son。 The son's love for French
manners； literature； philosophy and music was rejected by the
father as a manifestation of sissy…ness。 There followed a terrible
outbreak between these two strange temperaments。 Frederick
tried to escape to England。 He was caught and court…
martialed and forced to witness the decapitation of his best
friend who had tried to help him。 Thereupon as part of his
pu