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an end。 For the next seven years； a Tartar half…breed； by the
name of Boris Godunow； reigned as Tsar。 It was during
this period that the future destiny of the large masses of the
Russian people was decided。 This Empire was rich in land
but very poor in money。 There was no trade and there were
no factories。 Its few cities were dirty villages。 It was composed
of a strong central government and a vast number of
illiterate peasants。 This government； a mixture of Slavic；
Norse； Byzantine and Tartar influences； recognised nothing
beyond the interest of the state。 To defend this state； it
needed an army。 To gather the taxes； which were necessary
to pay the soldiers； it needed civil servants。 To pay these many
officials it needed land。 In the vast wilderness on the east
and west there was a sufficient supply of this commodity。 But
land without a few labourers to till the fields and tend the
cattle； has no value。 Therefore the old nomadic peasants
were robbed of one privilege after the other； until finally； during
the first year of the sixteenth century； they were formally
made a part of the soil upon which they lived。 The Russian
peasants ceased to be free men。 They became serfs or slaves
and they remained serfs until the year 1861； when their fate
had become so terrible that they were beginning to die out。
In the seventeenth century； this new state with its growing
territory which was spreading quickly into Siberia； had become
a force with which the rest of Europe was obliged to
reckon。 In 1618； after the death of Boris Godunow； the
Russian nobles had elected one of their own number to be
Tsar。 He was Michael； the son of Feodor； of the Moscow family
of Romanow who lived in a little house just outside the
Kremlin。
In the year 1672 his great…grandson； Peter； the son of another
Feodor； was born。 When the child was ten years old；
his step…sister Sophia took possession of the Russian throne。
The little boy was allowed to spend his days in the suburbs of
the national capital； where the foreigners lived。 Surrounded
by Scotch barkeepers； Dutch traders； Swiss apothecaries； Italian
barbers； French dancing teachers and German school…masters；
the young prince obtained a first but rather extraordinary
impression of that far…away and mysterious Europe where
things were done differently。
When he was seventeen years old； he suddenly pushed
Sister Sophia from the throne。 Peter himself became the ruler
of Russia。 He was not contented with being the Tsar of a
semi…barbarous and half…Asiatic people。 He must be the sovereign
head of a civilised nation。 To change Russia overnight
from a Byzantine…Tartar state into a European empire was no
small undertaking。 It needed strong hands and a capable
head。 Peter possessed both。 In the year 1698； the great
operation of grafting Modern Europe upon Ancient Russia was
performed。 The patient did not die。 But he never got over
the shock； as the events of the last five years have shown very
plainly。
RUSSIA vs。 SWEDEN
RUSSIA AND SWEDEN FIGHT MANY WARS TO
DECIDE WHO SHALL BE THE LEADING
POWER OF NORTH…EASTERN EUROPE
IN the year 1698； Tsar Peter set forth upon his first
voyage to western Europe。 He travelled by way of Berlin and
went to Holland and to England。 As a child he had almost
been drowned sailing a homemade boat in the duck pond of
his father's country home。 This passion for water remained
with him to the end of his life。 In a practical way it showed
itself in his wish to give his land…locked domains access to
the open sea。
While the unpopular and harsh young ruler was away
from home； the friends of the old Russian ways in Moscow set
to work to undo all his reforms。 A sudden rebellion among
his life…guards； the Streltsi regiment； forced Peter to hasten
home by the fast mail。 He appointed himself executioner…in…
chief and the Streltsi were hanged and quartered and killed to
the last man。 Sister Sophia； who had been the head of the
rebellion； was locked up in a cloister and the rule of Peter be…
gan in earnest。 This scene was repeated in the year 1716 when
Peter had gone on his second western trip。 That time the
reactionaries followed the leadership of Peter's half…witted
son； Alexis。 Again the Tsar returned in great haste。 Alexis
was beaten to death in his prison cell and the friends of the
old fashioned Byzantine ways marched thousands of dreary
miles to their final destination in the Siberian lead mines。
After that； no further outbreaks of popular discontent took
place。 Until the time of his death； Peter could reform in peace。
It is not easy to give you a list of his reforms in chronological
order。 The Tsar worked with furious haste。 He followed
no system。 He issued his decrees with such rapidity that it is
difficult to keep count。 Peter seemed to feel that everything
that had ever happened before was entirely wrong。 The whole
of Russia therefore must be changed within the shortest possible
time。 When he died he left behind a well…trained army of
200；000 men and a navy of fifty ships。 The old system of government
had been abolished over night。 The Duma； or convention
of Nobles； had been dismissed and in its stead； the Tsar
had surrounded himself with an advisory board of state officials；
called the Senate。
Russia was divided into eight large ‘‘governments'' or provinces。
Roads were constructed。 Towns were built。 Industries
were created wherever it pleased the Tsar； without any regard
for the presence of raw material。 Canals were dug and mines
were opened in the mountains of the east。 In this land of illiterates；
schools were founded and establishments of higher learning；
together with Universities and hospitals and professional
schools。 Dutch naval engineers and tradesmen and artisans
from all over the world were encouraged to move to Russia。
Printing shops were established； but all books must be first read
by the imperial censors。 The duties of each class of society
were carefully written down in a new law and the entire system
of civil and criminal laws was gathered into a series of printed
volumes。 The old Russian costumes were abolished by Imperial
decree； and policemen； armed with scissors； watching
all the country roads； changed the long…haired Russian mou…
jiks suddenly into a pleasing imitation of smooth…shaven west。
Europeans。
In religious matters； the Tsar tolerated no division of
power。 There must be no chance of a rivalry between an
Emperor and a Pope as had happened in Europe。 In the year
1721； Peter made himself head of the Russian Church。 The
Patriarchate of Moscow was abolished and the Holy Synod
made its appearance as the highest source of authority in all
matters of the Established Church。
Since； however； these many reforms could not be success…
ful while the old Russian elements had a rallying point in the
town of Moscow； Peter decided to move his government to a
new capital。 Amidst t