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But when Spain smiled pleasantly upon England in an effort
to establish peaceful relations； James was seen to smile back。
The majority of the English people did not like this； but
James was their King and they kept quiet。
Soon there were other causes of friction。 King James and
his son； Charles I； who succeeded him in the year 1625 both
firmly believed in the principle of their ‘‘divine right'' to
administer their realm as they thought fit without consulting the
wishes of their subjects。 The idea was not new。 The Popes；
who in more than one way had been the successors of the
Roman Emperors （or rather of the Roman Imperial ideal of
a single and undivided state covering the entire known world）；
had always regarded themselves and had been publicly recognised
as the ‘‘Vice…Regents of Christ upon Earth。'' No one
questioned the right of God to rule the world as He saw fit。
As a natural result； few ventured to doubt the right of the
divine ‘‘Vice…Regent'' to do the same thing and to demand the
obedience of the masses because he was the direct representative
of the Absolute Ruler of the Universe and responsible
only to Almighty God。
When the Lutheran Reformation proved successful； those
rights which formerly had been invested in the Papacy were
taken over by the many European sovereigns who became
Protestants。 As head of their own national or dynastic
churches they insisted upon being ‘‘Christ's Vice…Regents''
within the limit of their own territory。 The people did not question
the right of their rulers to take such a step。 They accepted
it； just as we in our own day accept the idea of a representative
system which to us seems the only reasonable and just
form of government。 It is unfair therefore to state that either
Lutheranism or Calvinism caused the particular feeling of
irritation which greeted King…James's oft and loudly repeated
assertion of his ‘‘Divine Right。'' There must have been other
grounds for the genuine English disbelief in the Divine Right
of Kings。
The first positive denial of the ‘‘Divine Right'' of sovereigns
had been heard in the Netherlands when the Estates General
abjured their lawful sovereign King Philip II of Spain； in the
year 1581。 ‘‘The King；'' so they said； ‘‘has broken his contract
and the King therefore is dismissed like any other unfaithful
servant。'' Since then； this particular idea of a king's
responsibilities towards his subjects had spread among many of the
nations who inhabited the shores of the North Sea。 They were
in a very favourable position。 They were rich。 The poor people
in the heart of central Europe； at the mercy of their
Ruler's body…guard； could not afford to discuss a problem
which would at once land them in the deepest dungeon of the
nearest castle。 But the merchants of Holland and England
who possessed the capital necessary for the maintenance of
great armies and navies； who knew how to handle the almighty
weapon called ‘‘credit；'' had no such fear。 They were willing
to pit the ‘‘Divine Right'' of their own good money against
the ‘‘Divine Right'' of any Habsburg or Bourbon or Stuart。
They knew that their guilders and shillings could beat the
clumsy feudal armies which were the only weapons of the King。
They dared to act； where others were condemned to suffer
in silence or run the risk of the scaffold。
When the Stuarts began to annoy the people of England
with their claim that they had a right to do what they pleased
and never mind the responsibility； the English middle classes
used the House of Commons as their first line of defence
against this abuse of the Royal Power。 The Crown refused to
give in and the King sent Parliament about its own business。
Eleven long years； Charles I ruled alone。 He levied taxes
which most people regarded as illegal and he managed his
British kingdom as if it had been his own country estate。 He
had capable assistants and we must say that he had the courage
of his convictions。
Unfortunately； instead of assuring himself of the support
of his faithful Scottish subjects； Charles became involved in
a quarrel with the Scotch Presbyterians。 Much against his
will； but forced by his need for ready cash； Charles was at
last obliged to call Parliament together once more。 It met in
April of 1640 and showed an ugly temper。 It was dissolved
a few weeks later。 A new Parliament convened in November。
This one was even less pliable than the first one。 The members
understood that the question of ‘‘Government by Divine
Right'' or ‘‘Government by Parliament'' must be fought out
for good and all。 They attacked the King in his chief councillors
and executed half a dozen of them。 They announced that
they would not allow themselves to be dissolved without their
own approval。 Finally on December 1； 1641； they presented
to the King a ‘‘Grand Remonstrance'' which gave a detailed
account of the many grievances of the people against their Ruler。
Charles； hoping to derive some support for his own policy
in the country districts； left London in January of 1642。 Each
side organised an army and prepared for open warfare between
the absolute power of the crown and the absolute power
of Parliament。 During this struggle； the most powerful religious
element of England； called the Puritans； （they were
Anglicans who had tried to purify their doctrines to the most
absolute limits）； came quickly to the front。 The regiments of
‘‘Godly men；'' commanded by Oliver Cromwell； with their
iron discipline and their profound confidence in the holiness of
their aims； soon became the model for the entire army of the
opposition。 Twice Charles was defeated。 After the battle
of Naseby； in 1645； he fled to Scotland。 The Scotch sold him
to the English。
There followed a period of intrigue and an uprising
of the Scotch Presbyterians against the English Puritan。
In August of the year 1648 after the three…days' battle of
Preston Pans； Cromwell made an end to this second civil war；
and took Edinburgh。 Meanwhile his soldiers； tired of further
talk and wasted hours of religious debate； had decided to act
on their own initiative。 They removed from Parliament all
those who did not agree with their own Puritan views。 Thereupon
the ‘‘Rump；'' which was what was left of the old Parliament；
accused the King of high treason。 The House of Lords
refused to sit as a tribunal。 A special tribunal was appointed
and it condemned the King to death。 On the 30th of January
of the year 1649； King Charles walked quietly out of a window
of White Hall onto the scaffold。 That day； the Sovereign
People； acting through their chosen representatives； for the
first time executed a ruler who had failed to understand his own
position in the modern state。
The period which followed the death of Charles is usually
called after Oliver Cromwell。 At first the unofficial Dictator
of England； he was officially made Lord Protector in the year
1653。 He ruled five years。 He used th