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or （according to Grotius） ought to be； a free and open highway
to all the ships of all nations。 It was the first time that this
startling doctrine had been publicly pronounced in a court
of law。 It was opposed by all the other seafaring people。 To
counteract the effect of Grotius' famous plea for the ‘‘Mare
Liberum；'' or ‘‘Open Sea；'' John Selden； the Englishman；
wrote his famous treatise upon the ‘‘Mare Clausum'' or ‘‘Closed
Sea'' which treated of the natural right of a sovereign to regard
the seas which surrounded his country as belonging to his territory。
I mention this here because the question had not yet
been decided and during the last war caused all sorts of
difficulties and complications。
To return to the warfare between Spaniard and Hollander
and Englishman； before twenty years were over the most
valuable colonies of the Indies and the Cape of Good Hope and
Ceylon and those along the coast of China and even Japan were
in Protestant hands。 In 1621 a West Indian Company was
founded which conquered Brazil and in North America built
a fortress called Nieuw Amsterdam at the mouth of the river
which Henry Hudson had discovered in the year 1609
These new colonies enriched both England and the Dutch
Republic to such an extent that they could hire foreign soldiers
to do their fighting on land while they devoted themselves
to commerce and trade。 To them the Protestant revolt meant
independence and prosperity。 But in many other parts of
Europe it meant a succession of horrors compared to which the
last war was a mild excursion of kindly Sunday…school boys。
The Thirty Years War which broke out in the year 1618
and which ended with the famous treaty of Westphalia in 1648
was the perfectly natural result of a century of ever increasing
religious hatred。 It was； as I have said； a terrible war。 Everybody
fought everybody else and the struggle ended only when
all parties had been thoroughly exhausted and could fight no
longer。
In less than a generation it turned many parts of central
Europe into a wilderness； where the hungry peasants fought
for the carcass of a dead horse with the even hungrier wolf。
Five…sixths of all the German towns and villages were destroyed。
The Palatinate； in western Germany； was plundered
twenty…eight times。 And a population of eighteen million
people was reduced to four million。
The hostilities began almost as soon as Ferdinand II of
the House of Habsburg had been elected Emperor。 He was
the product of a most careful Jesuit training and was a most
obedient and devout son of the Church。 The vow which he had
made as a young man； that he would eradicate all sects and
all heresies from his domains； Ferdinand kept to the best of
his ability。 Two days before his election； his chief opponent；
Frederick； the Protestant Elector of the Palatinate and a
son…in…law of James I of England； had been made King of
Bohemia； in direct violation of Ferdinand's wishes。
At once the Habsburg armies marched into Bohemia。 The
young king looked in vain for assistance against this formidable
enemy。 The Dutch Republic was willing to help； but；
engaged in a desperate war of its own with the Spanish branch
of the Habsburgs； it could do little。 The Stuarts in England
were more interested in strengthening their own absolute power
at home than spending money and men upon a forlorn adventure
in far away Bohemia。 After a struggle of a few months；
the Elector of the Palatinate was driven away and his domains
were given to the Catholic house of Bavaria。 This was the beginning
of the great war。
Then the Habsburg armies； under Tilly and Wallenstein；
fought their way through the Protestant part of Germany
until they had reached the shores of the Baltic。 A Catholic
neighbour meant serious danger to the Protestant king of
Denmark。 Christian IV tried to defend himself by attacking
his enemies before they had become too strong for him。 The
Danish armies marched into Germany but were defeated。
Wallenstein followed up his victory with such energy and violence
that Denmark was forced to sue for peace。 Only one
town of the Baltic then remained in the hands of the Protestants。
That was Stralsund。
There； in the early summer of the year 1630； landed King
Gustavus Adolphus of the house of Vasa； king of Sweden；
and famous as the man who had defended his country against
the Russians。 A Protestant prince of unlimited ambition；
desirous of making Sweden the centre of a great Northern
Empire； Gustavus Adolphus was welcomed by the Protestant
princes of Europe as the saviour of the Lutheran cause。 He
defeated Tilly； who had just successfully butchered the Protestant
inhabitants of Magdeburg。 Then his troops began their
great march through the heart of Germany in an attempt to
reach the Habsburg possessions in Italy。 Threatened in the
rear by the Catholics； Gustavus suddenly veered around and
defeated the main Habsburg army in the battle of Lutzen。
Unfortunately the Swedish king was killed when he strayed
away from his troops。 But the Habsburg power had been
broken。
Ferdinand； who was a suspicious sort of person； at once
began to distrust his own servants。 Wallenstein； his commander…
in…chief； was murdered at his instigation。 When the
Catholic Bourbons； who ruled France and hated their Habsburg
rivals； heard of this； they joined the Protestant Swedes。
The armies of Louis XIII invaded the eastern part of Germany；
and Turenne and Conde added their fame to that of
Baner and Weimar； the Swedish generals； by murdering； pillaging
and burning Habsburg property。 This brought great
fame and riches to the Swedes and caused the Danes to become
envious。 The Protestant Danes thereupon declared war upon
the Protestant Swedes who were the allies of the Catholic
French； whose political leader； the Cardinal de Richelieu； had
just deprived the Huguenots （or French Protestants） of those
rights of public worship which the Edict of Nantes of the year
1598 had guaranteed them。
The war； after the habit of such encounters； did not decide
anything； when it came to an end with the treaty of Westphalia
in 1648。 The Catholic powers remained Catholic and
the Protestant powers stayed faithful to the doctrines of
Luther and Calvin and Zwingli。 The Swiss and Dutch Protestants
were recognised as independent republics。 France
kept the cities of Metz and Toul and Verdun and a part of the
Alsace。 The Holy Roman Empire continued to exist as a sort
of scare…crow state； without men； without money； without hope
and without courage。
The only good the Thirty Years War accomplished was a
negative one。 It discouraged both Catholics and Protestants
from ever trying it again。 Henceforth they left each other in
peace。 This however did not mean that religious feeling and
theological hatred had been removed from this earth。 On the
contrary。 The quarrels between Catholic and Protestant
came to an end； but the disputes