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King） of Abyssinia； whose ancestors had adopted Christianity
in the fourth century； seven hundred years before the Christian
missionaries had found their way to Scandinavia。
These many voyages had convinced the Portuguese geographers
and cartographers that while the voyage to the Indies
by an eastern sea…route was possible； it was by no means easy。
Then there arose a great debate。 Some people wanted to continue
the explorations east of the Cape of Good Hope。 Others
said； ‘‘No； we must sail west across the Atlantic and then we
shall reach Cathay。''
Let us state right here that most intelligent people of that
day were firmly convinced that the earth was not as flat as a
pancake but was round。 The Ptolemean system of the universe；
invented and duly described by Claudius Ptolemy； the great
Egyptian geographer； who had lived in the second century of
our era； which had served the simple needs of the men of the
Middle Ages； had long been discarded by the scientists of the
Renaissance。 They had accepted the doctrine of the Polish
mathematician； Nicolaus Copernicus； whose studies had con…
vinced him that the earth was one of a number of round planets
which turned around the sun； a discovery which he did not venture
to publish for thirty…six years （it was printed in 1548；
the year of his death） from fear of the Holy Inquisition； a
Papal court which had been established in the thirteenth century
when the heresies of the Albigenses and the Waldenses
in France and in Italy （very mild heresies of devoutly pious
people who did not believe in private property and preferred
to live in Christ…like poverty） had for a moment threatened the
absolute power of the bishops of Rome。 But the belief in the
roundness of the earth was common among the nautical experts
and； as I said； they were now debating the respective
advantages of the eastern and the western routes。
Among the advocates of the western route was a Genoese
mariner by the name of Cristoforo Colombo。 He was the son
of a wool merchant。 He seems to have been a student at the
University of Pavia where he specialised in mathematics and
geometry。 Then he took up his father's trade but soon we find
him in Chios in the eastern Mediterranean travelling on business。
Thereafter we hear of voyages to England but whether
he went north in search of wool or as the captain of a ship we
do not know。 In February of the year 1477； Colombo （if we
are to believe his own words） visited Iceland； but very likely
he only got as far as the Faroe Islands which are cold enough
in February to be mistaken for Iceland by any one。 Here
Colombo met the descendants of those brave Norsemen who
in the tenth century had settled in Greenland and who had
visited America in the eleventh century； when Leif's vessel
had been blown to the coast of Vineland； or Labrador。
What had become of those far western colonies no one
knew。 The American colony of Thorfinn Karlsefne； the husband
of the widow of Leif's brother Thorstein； founded in the
year 1003； had been discontinued three years later on account
of the hostility of the Esquimaux。 As for Greenland； not a
word had been heard from the settlers since the year 1440。
Very likely the Greenlanders had all died of the Black Death。
which had just killed half the people of Norway。 However
that might be； the tradition of a ‘‘vast land in the distant west''
still survived among the people of the Faroe and Iceland； and
Colombo must have heard of it。 He gathered further information
among the fishermen of the northern Scottish islands and
then went to Portugal where he married the daughter of one
of the captains who had served under Prince Henry the
Navigator。
From that moment on （the year 1478） he devoted himself
to the quest of the western route to the Indies。 He sent his
plans for such a voyage to the courts of Portugal and Spain。
The Portuguese； who felt certain that they possessed a monop…
oly of the eastern route； would not listen to his plans。 In
Spain； Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile； whose
marriage in 1469 had made Spain into a single kingdom； were
busy driving the Moors from their last stronghold； Granada。
They had no money for risky expeditions。 They needed every
peseta for their soldiers。
Few people were ever forced to fight as desperately for
their ideas as this brave Italian。 But the story of Colombo
（or Colon or Columbus； as we call him；） is too well known to
bear repeating。 The Moors surrendered Granada on the second
of January of the year 1492。 In the month of April of the
same year； Columbus signed a contract with the King and
Queen of Spain。 On Friday； the 3rd of August； he left Palos
with three little ships and a crew of 88 men； many of whom
were criminals who had been offered indemnity of punishment
if they joined the expedition。 At two o'clock in the morning
of Friday； the 12th of October； Columbus discovered land。 On
the fourth of January of the year 1493； Columbus waved farewell
to the 44 men of the little fortress of La Navidad （none
of whom was ever again seen alive） and returned homeward。
By the middle of February he reached the Azores where the
Portuguese threatened to throw him into gaol。 On the fifteenth
of March； 1493； the admiral reached Palos and together with
his Indians （for he was convinced that he had discovered some
outlying islands of the Indies and called the natives red
Indians） he hastened to Barcelona to tell his faithful patrons
that he had been successful and that the road to the gold and
the silver of Cathay and Zipangu was at the disposal of their
most Catholic Majesties。
Alas； Columbus never knew the truth。 Towards the end
of his life； on his fourth voyage； when he had touched the mainland
of South America； he may have suspected that all was
not well with his discovery。 But he died in the firm belief
that there was no solid continent between Europe and Asia
and that he had found the direct route to China。
Meanwhile； the Portuguese； sticking to their eastern route；
had been more fortunate。 In the year 1498； Vasco da Gama
had been able to reach the coast of Malabar and return safely
to Lisbon with a cargo of spice。 In the year 1502 he had
repeated the visit。 But along the western route； the work of
exploration had been most disappointing。 In 1497 and 1498
John and Sebastian Cabot had tried to find a passage to Japan
but they had seen nothing but the snowbound coasts and the
rocks of Newfoundland； which had first been sighted by the
Northmen； five centuries before。 Amerigo Vespucci； a Florentine
who became the Pilot Major of Spain； and who gave his
name to our continent； had explored the coast of Brazil； but
had found not a trace of the Indies。
In the year 1513； seven years after the death of Columbus；
the truth at last began to dawn upon the geographers of
Europe。 Vasco Nunez de Balboa had crossed the Isthmus of
Panama； had climbed the famous peak in Darie