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of what we modern people call ‘‘corners；'' when a single rich
man gets hold of all the available grain or soap or pickled
herring； and then forces the world to buy from him at his own
price。 The authorities； therefore； discouraged wholesale trading
and regulated the price at which merchants were allowed
to sell their goods。
The Middle Ages disliked competition。 Why compete and
fill the world with hurry and rivalry and a multitude of pushing
men； when the Day of Judgement was near at hand； when
riches would count for nothing and when the good serf would
enter the golden gates of Heaven while the bad knight was
sent to do penance in the deepest pit of Inferno？
In short； the people of the Middle Ages were asked to surrender
part of their liberty of thought and action； that they
might enjoy greater safety from poverty of the body and poverty
of the soul。
And with a very few exceptions； they did not object。 They
firmly believed that they were mere visitors upon this planet
that they were here to be prepared for a greater and more
important life。 Deliberately they turned their backs upon a
world which was filled with suffering and wickedness and
injustice。 They pulled down the blinds that the rays of the
sun might not distract their attention from that chapter in the
Apocalypse which told them of that heavenly light which was
to illumine their happiness in all eternity。 They tried to close
their eyes to most of the joys of the world in which they lived
that they might enjoy those which awaited them in the near
future。 They accepted life as a necessary evil and welcomed
death as the beginning of a glorious day。
The Greeks and the Romans had never bothered about the
future but had tried to establish their Paradise right here upon
this earth。 They had succeeded in making life extremely pleasant
for those of their fellow men who did not happen to be
slaves。 Then came the other extreme of the Middle Ages；
when man built himself a Paradise beyond the highest clouds
and turned this world into a vale of tears for high and low；
for rich and poor； for the intelligent and the dumb。 It was
time for the pendulum to swing back in the other direction； as
I shall tell you in my next chapter。
MEDIAEVAL TRADE
HOW THE CRUSADES ONCE MORE MADE THE
MEDITERRANEAN A BUSY CENTRE OF
TRADE AND HOW THE CITIES OF THE
ITALIAN PENINSULA BECAME THE GREAT
DISTRIBUTING CENTRE FOR THE COMMERCE
WITH ASIA AND AFRICA
THERE were three good reasons why the Italian cities should
have been the first to regain a position of great importance
during the late Middle Ages。 The Italian peninsula had been
settled by Rome at a very early date。 There had been more
roads and more towns and more schools than anywhere else
in Europe。
The barbarians had burned as lustily in Italy as elsewhere；
but there had been so much to destroy that more had been able
to survive。 In the second place； the Pope lived in Italy and
as the head of a vast political machine； which owned land and
serfs and buildings and forests and rivers and conducted courts
of law； he was in constant receipt of a great deal of money。
The Papal authorities had to be paid in gold and silver as did
the merchants and ship…owners of Venice and Genoa。 The
cows and the eggs and the horses and all the other agricultural
products of the north and the west must be changed into actual
cash before the debt could be paid in the distant city of Rome。
This made Italy the one country where there was a comparative
abundance of gold and silver。 Finally； during the Crusades；
the Italian cities had become the point of embarkation
for the Crusaders and had profiteered to an almost unbelievable
extent。
And after the Crusades had come to an end； these same
Italian cities remained the distributing centres for those Oriental
goods upon which the people of Europe had come to depend
during the time they had spent in the near east。
Of these towns； few were as famous as Venice。 Venice was
a republic built upon a mud bank。 Thither people from the
mainland had fled during the invasions of the barbarians in the
fourth century。 Surrounded on all sides by the sea they had
engaged in the business of salt…making。 Salt had been very
scarce during the Middle Ages； and the price had been high。
For hundreds of years Venice had enjoyed a monopoly of
this indispensable table commodity （I say indispensable； because
people； like sheep； fall ill unless they get a certain amount
of salt in their food）。 The people had used this monopoly to
increase the power of their city。 At times they had even dared
to defy the power of the Popes。 The town had grown rich and
had begun to build ships； which engaged in trade with the
Orient。 During the Crusades； these ships were used to carry
passengers to the Holy Land； and when the passengers could
not pay for their tickets in cash； they were obliged to help the
Venetians who were for ever increasing their colonies in the
AEgean Sea； in Asia Minor and in Egypt。
By the end of the fourteenth century； the population had
grown to two hundred thousand； which made Venice the biggest
city of the Middle Ages。 The people were without influence
upon the government which was the private affair of a
small number of rich merchant families。 They elected a senate
and a Doge （or Duke）； but the actual rulers of the city were
the members of the famous Council of Ten；who maintained
themselves with the help of a highly organised system of secret
service men and professional murderers； who kept watch upon
all citizens and quietly removed those who might be dangerous
to the safety of their high…handed and unscrupulous Committee
of Public Safety。
The other extreme of government； a democracy of very
turbulent habits； was to be found in Florence。 This city
controlled the main road from northern Europe to Rome and used
the money which it had derived from this fortunate economic
position to engage in manufacturing。 The Florentines tried to
follow the example of Athens。 Noblemen； priests and members
of the guilds all took part in the discussions of civic affairs。
This led to great civic upheaval。 People were forever being divided
into political parties and these parties fought each other
with intense bitterness and exiled their enemies and confiscated
their possessions as soon as they had gained a victory in the
council。 After several centuries of this rule by organised mobs；
the inevitable happened。 A powerful family made itself master
of the city and governed the town and the surrounding country
after the fashion of the old Greek ‘‘tyrants。'' They were called
the Medici。 The earliest Medici had been physicians （medicus
is Latin for physician； hence their name）； but later they had
turned banker。 Their banks and their pawnshops were to be
found in all the more important centres of trade。 Even today
our American pawn…shops display the three gold