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love； charity and forgiveness。 As a handbook of astronomy；
zoology； botany； geometry and all the other sciences； the venerable
book is not entirely reliable。 In the twelfth century； a
second book was added to the mediaeval library； the great
encyclopaedia of useful knowledge； compiled by Aristotle； the
Greek philosopher of the fourth century before Christ。 Why
the Christian church should have been willing to accord such
high honors to the teacher of Alexander the Great； whereas
they condemned all other Greek philosophers on account of
their heathenish doctrines； I really do not know。 But next to
the Bible； Aristotle was recognized as the only reliable teacher
whose works could be safely placed into the hands of true
Christians。
His works had reached Europe in a somewhat roundabout
way。 They had gone from Greece to Alexandria。 They had
then been translated from the Greek into the Arabic language
by the Mohammedans who conquered Egypt in the seventh
century。 They had followed the Moslem armies into Spain and
the philosophy of the great Stagirite （Aristotle was a native of
Stagira in Macedonia） was taught in the Moorish universities
of Cordova。 The Arabic text was then translated into Latin
by the Christian students who had crossed the Pyrenees to get
a liberal education and this much travelled version of the famous
books was at last taught at the different schools of northwestern
Europe。 It was not very clear； but that made it all
the more interesting。
With the help of the Bible and Aristotle； the most brilliant
men of the Middle Ages now set to work to explain all things
between Heaven and Earth in their relation to the expressed
will of God。 These brilliant men； the so…called Scholasts or
Schoolmen； were really very intelligent； but they had obtained
their information exclusively from books； and never from actual
observation。 If they wanted to lecture on the sturgeon
or on caterpillars； they read the Old and New Testaments and
Aristotle； and told their students everything these good books
had to say upon the subject of caterpillars and sturgeons。
They did not go out to the nearest river to catch a sturgeon。
They did not leave their libraries and repair to the backyard
to catch a few caterpillars and look at these animals and study
them in their native haunts。 Even such famous scholars as
Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas did not inquire whether
the sturgeons in the land of Palestine and the caterpillars of
Macedonia might not have been different from the sturgeons
and the caterpillars of western Europe。
When occasionally an exceptionally curious person like
Roger Bacon appeared in the council of the learned and began
to experiment with magnifying glasses and funny little telescopes
and actually dragged the sturgen and the caterpillar
into the lecturing room and proved that they were different
from the creatures described by the Old Testament and by
Aristotle； the Schoolmen shook their dignified heads。 Bacon
was going too far。 When he dared to suggest that an hour
of actual observation was worth more than ten years with
Aristotle and that the works of that famous Greek might as
well have remained untranslated for all the good they had ever
done； the scholasts went to the police and said； ‘‘This man is
a danger to the safety of the state。 He wants us to study
Greek that we may read Aristotle in the original。 Why should
he not be contented with our Latin…Arabic translation which
has satisfied our faithful people for so many hundred years？
Why is he so curious about the insides of fishes and the insides
of insects？ He is probably a wicked magician trying to upset
the established order of things by his Black Magic。'' And so
well did they plead their cause that the frightened guardians
of the peace forbade Bacon to write a single word for more
than ten years。 When he resumed his studies he had learned
a lesson。 He wrote his books in a queer cipher which made it
impossible for his contemporaries to read them； a trick which
became common as the Church became more desperate in its
attempts to prevent people from asking questions which would
lead to doubts and infidelity。
This； however； was not done out of any wicked desire to
keep people ignorant。 The feeling which prompted the heretic
hunters of that day was really a very kindly one。 They firmly
believednay； they knewthat this life was but the preparation
for our real existence in the next world。 They felt convinced
that too much knowledge made people uncomfortable；
filled their minds with dangerous opinions and led to doubt
and hence to perdition。 A mediaeval Schoolman who saw one
of his pupils stray away from the revealed authority of the
Bible and Aristotle； that he might study things for himself； felt
as uncomfortable as a loving mother who sees her young child
approach a hot stove。 She knows that he will burn his little
fingers if he is allowed to touch it and she tries to keep him
back； if necessary she will use force。 But she really loves
the child and if he will only obey her； she will be as good to him
as she possibly can be。 In the same way the mediaeval guardians
of people's souls； while they were strict in all matters
pertaining to the Faith； slaved day and night to render the
greatest possible service to the members of their flock。 They
held out a helping hand whenever they could and the society
of that day shows the influence of thousands of good men and
pious women who tried to make the fate of the average mortal
as bearable as possible。
A serf was a serf and his position would never change。 But
the Good Lord of the Middle Ages who allowed the serf to
remain a slave all his life had bestowed an immortal soul upon
this humble creature and therefore he must be protected in his
rights； that he might live and die as a good Christian。 When
he grew too old or too weak to work he must be taken care
of by the feudal master for whom he had worked。 The serf；
therefore； who led a monotonous and dreary life； was never
haunted by fear of to…morrow。 He knew that he was ‘‘safe''
that he could not be thrown out of employment； that he would
always have a roof over his head （a leaky roof； perhaps； but
roof all the same）； and that he would always have something
to eat。
This feeling of ‘‘stability'' and of ‘‘safety'' was found in all
classes of society。 In the towns the merchants and the artisans
established guilds which assured every member of a steady income。
It did not encourage the ambitious to do better than
their neighbours。 Too often the guilds gave protection to
the ‘‘slacker'' who managed to ‘‘get by。'' But they established
a general feeling of content and assurance among the
labouring classes which no longer exists in our day of general
competition。 The Middle Ages were familiar with the dangers
of what we modern people call ‘‘corners；'' when a single rich
man gets hold of all the available grain or soap or pickl