按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
with their well…filled strong…boxes snapped their fingers
at him。 They were free men； fully prepared to hold what they
had gained by the sweat of their brow and after a struggle
which had lasted for more than ten generations。
MEDIAEVAL SELF…GOVERNMENT
HOW THE PEOPLE OF THE CITIES ASSERTED
THEIR RIGHT TO BE HEARD IN THE
ROYAL COUNCILS OF THEIR COUNTRY
As long as people were ‘‘nomads；'' wandering tribes of shepherds；
all men had been equal and had been responsible for the
welfare and safety of the entire community。
But after they had settled down and some had become rich
and others had grown poor； the government was apt to fall into
the hands of those who were not obliged to work for their living
and who could devote themselves to politics。
I have told you how this had happened in Egypt and in
Mesopotamia and in Greece and in Rome。 It occurred among
the Germanic population of western Europe as soon as order
had been restored。 The western European world was ruled
in the first place by an emperor who was elected by the seven
or eight most important kings of the vast Roman Empire of
the German nation and who enjoyed a great deal of imaginary
and very little actual power。 It was ruled by a number of
kings who sat upon shaky thrones。 The every…day government
was in the hands of thousands of feudal princelets。 Their
subjects were peasants or serfs。 There were few cities。 There
was hardly any middle class。 But during the thirteenth century
（after an absence of almost a thousand years） the middle
classthe merchant classonce more appeared upon the his…
torical stage and its rise in power； as we saw in the last chapter；
had meant a decrease in the influence of the castle folk。
Thus far； the king； in ruling his domains； had only paid
attention to the wishes of his noblemen and his bishops。 But the
new world of trade and commerce which grew out of the
Crusades forced him to recognise the middle class or suffer
from an ever…increasing emptiness of his exchequer。 Their
majesties （if they had followed their hidden wishes） would
have as lief consulted their cows and their pigs as the good
burghers of their cities。 But they could not help themselves。
They swallowed the bitter pill because it was gilded； but not
without a struggle。
In England； during the absence of Richard the Lion
Hearted （who had gone to the Holy Land； but who was spending
the greater part of his crusading voyage in an Austrian
jail） the government of the country had been placed in the
hands of John； a brother of Richard； who was his inferior in
the art of war； but his equal as a bad administrator。 John had
begun his career as a regent by losing Normandy and the
greater part of the French possessions。 Next； he had managed
to get into a quarrel with Pope Innocent III； the famous
enemy of the Hohenstaufens。 The Pope had excommunicated
John （as Gregory VII had excommunicated the Emperor
Henry IV two centuries before）。 In the year 1213 John had
been obliged to make an ignominious peace just as Henry IV
had been obliged to do in the year 1077。
Undismayed by his lack of success； John continued to abuse
his royal power until his disgruntled vassals made a prisoner
of their anointed ruler and forced him to promise that he
would be good and would never again interfere with the ancient
rights of his subjects。 All this happened on a little island in
the Thames； near the village of Runnymede； on the 15th of
June of the year 1215。 The document to which John signed
his name was called the Big Charterthe Magna Carta。 It
contained very little that was new。 It re…stated in short and
direct sentences the ancient duties of the king and enumerated
the privileges of his vassals。 It paid little attention to the
rights （if any） of the vast majority of the people； the peasants；
but it offered certain securities to the rising class of the
merchants。 It was a charter of great importance because it defined
the powers of the king with more precision than had ever been
done before。 But it was still a purely mediaeval document。 It
did not refer to common human beings； unless they happened to
be the property of the vassal； which must be safe…guarded
against royal tyranny just as the Baronial woods and cows
were protected against an excess of zeal on the part of the
royal foresters。
A few years later； however； we begin to hear a very different
note in the councils of His Majesty。
John； who was bad； both by birth and inclination； solemnly
had promised to obey the great charter and then had broken
every one of its many stipulations。 Fortunately； he soon died
and was succeeded by his son Henry III； who was forced to
recognise the charter anew。 Meanwhile； Uncle Richard； the
Crusader； had cost the country a great deal of money and the
king was obliged to ask for a few loans that he might pay his
obligations to the Jewish money…lenders。 The large land…owners
and the bishops who acted as councillors to the king could
not provide him with the necessary gold and silver。 The king
then gave orders that a few representatives of the cities be
called upon to attend the sessions of his Great Council。 They
made their first appearance in the year 1265。 They were supposed
to act only as financial experts who were not supposed
to take a part in the general discussion of matters of state； but
to give advice exclusively upon the question of taxation。
Gradually； however； these representatives of the ‘‘commons''
were consulted upon many of the problems and the meeting
of noblemen； bishops and city delegates developed into a regular
Parliament； a place ‘‘ou l'on parfait；'' which means in English
where people talked； before important affairs of state were
decided upon。
But the institution of such a general advisory…board with
certain executive powers was not an English invention； as
seems to ke the general belief； and government by a ‘‘king and
his parliament'' was by no means restricted to the British Isles。
You will find it in every part of Europe。 In some countries；
like France； the rapid increase of the Royal power after the
Middle Ages reduced the influence of the ‘‘parliament'' to nothing。
In the year 1302 representatives of the cities had been
admitted to the meeting of the French Parliament； but five
centuries had to pass before this ‘‘Parliament'' was strong
enough to assert the rights of the middle class； the so…called
Third Estate； and break the power of the king。 Then they
made up for lost time and during the French Revolution； abolished
the king； the clergy and the nobles and made the representatives
of the common people the rulers of the land。 In
Spain the ‘‘cortex'' （the king's council） had been opened to the
commoners as early as the first half of the twelfth century。
In the Germain Empire； a number of important cities had obtained
the rank of ‘‘imperial cities'' whose representatives must
be heard in the imper