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of life。 That will change in due course of time and we
shall then attack the problems which are not related to health
and to wages and plumbing and machinery in general。
But please do not be too sentimental about the ‘‘good old
days。'' Many people who only see the beautiful churches and
the great works of art which the Middle Ages have left behind
grow quite eloquent when they compare our own ugly civilisation
with its hurry and its noise and the evil smells of backfiring
motor trucks with the cities of a thousand years ago。
But these mediaeval churches were invariably surrounded by
miserable hovels compared to which a modern tenement house
stands forth as a luxurious palace。 It is true that the noble
Lancelot and the equally noble Parsifal； the pure young hero
who went in search of the Holy Grail； were not bothered by
the odor of gasoline。 But there were other smells of the barnyard
varietyodors of decaying refuse which had been thrown
into the streetof pig…sties surrounding the Bishop's palace
of unwashed people who had inherited their coats and hats
from their grandfathers and who had never learned the blessing
of soap。 I do not want to paint too unpleasant a picture。
But when you read in the ancient chronicles that the King of
France； looking out of the windows of his palace； fainted at
the stench caused by the pigs rooting in the streets of Paris；
when an ancient manuscript recounts a few details of an epidemic
of the plague or of small…pox； then you begin to under…
stand that ‘‘progress'' is something more than a catchword used
by modern advertising men。
No； the progress of the last six hundred years would not
have been possible without the existence of cities。 I shall；
therefore； have to make this chapter a little longer than many
of the others。 It is too important to be reduced to three or
four pages； devoted to mere political events。
The ancient world of Egypt and Babylonia and Assyria
had been a world of cities。 Greece had been a country of City…
States。 The history of Phoenicia was the history of two cities
called Sidon and Tyre。 The Roman Empire was the ‘‘hinterland''
of a single town。 Writing； art； science； astronomy； architecture；
literature； the theatrethe list is endlesshave all
been products of the city。
For almost four thousand years the wooden bee…hive which
we call a town had been the workshop of the world。 Then came
the great migrations。 The Roman Empire was destroyed。
The cities were burned down and Europe once more became a
land of pastures and little agricultural villages。 During the
Dark Ages the fields of civilisation had lain fallow。
The Crusades had prepared the soil for a new crop。 It
was time for the harvest； but the fruit was plucked by the
burghers of the free cities。
I have told you the story of the castles and the monasteries；
with their heavy stone enclosuresthe homes of the knights
and the monks； who guarded men's bodies and their souls。
You have seen how a few artisans （butchers and bakers and an
occasional candle…stick maker） came to live near the castle
to tend to the wants of their masters and to find protection
in case of danger。 Sometimes the feudal lord allowed these
people to surround their houses with a stockade。 But they
were dependent for their living upon the good…will of the
mighty Seigneur of the castle。 When he went about they knelt
before him and kissed his hand。
Then came the Crusades and many things changed。 The
migrations had driven people from the north…east to the west。
The Crusades made millions of people travel from the west to
the highly civilised regions of the south…east。 They discovered
that the world was not bounded by the four walls of their little
settlement。 They came to appreciate better clothes； more
comfortable houses； new dishes； products of the mysterious Orient。
After their return to their old homes； they insisted that they
be supplied with those articles。 The peddler with his pack
upon his backthe only merchant of the Dark Agesadded
these goods to his old merchandise； bought a cart； hired a few
ex…crusaders to protect him against the crime wave which
followed this great international war； and went forth to do
business upon a more modern and larger scale。 His career was
not an easy one。 Every time he entered the domains of another
Lord he had to pay tolls and taxes。 But the business
was profitable all the same and the peddler continued to make
his rounds。
Soon certain energetic merchants discovered that the goods
which they had always imported from afar could be made at
home。 They turned part of their homes into a workgshop。｛sic｝
They ceased to be merchants and became manufacturers。 They
sold their products not only to the lord of the castle and to the
abbot in his monastery； but they exported them to nearby towns。
The lord and the abbot paid them with products of their farms；
eggs and wines； and with honey； which in those early days was
used as sugar。 But the citizens of distant towns were obliged
to pay in cash and the manufacturer and the merchant began to
own little pieces of gold； which entirely changed their position
in the society of the early Middle Ages。
It is difficult for you to imagine a world without money。
In a modern city one cannot possible live without money。 All
day long you carry a pocket full of small discs of metal to
‘‘pay your way。'' You need a nickel for the street…car； a dollar
for a dinner； three cents for an evening paper。 But many
people of the early Middle Ages never saw a piece of coined
money from the time they were born to the day of their death。
The gold and silver of Greece and Rome lay buried beneath
the ruins of their cities。 The world of the migrations； which
had succeeded the Empire； was an agricultural world。 Every
farmer raised enough grain and enough sheep and enough
cows for his own use。
The mediaeval knight was a country squire and was rarely
forced to pay for materials in money。 His estates produced
everything that he and his family ate and drank and wore on
their backs。 The bricks for his house were made along the
banks of the nearest river。 Wood for the rafters of the hall
was cut from the baronial forest。 The few articles that had to
come from abroad were paid for in goodsin honeyin eggs
in fagots。
But the Crusades upset the routine of the old agricultural
life in a very drastic fashion。 Suppose that the Duke of Hildesheim
was going to the Holy Land。 He must travel thousands
of miles and he must pay his passage and his hotel…bills。
At home he could pay with products of his farm。 But he
could not well take a hundred dozen eggs and a cart…load of
hams with him to satisfy the greed of the shipping agent of
Venice or the inn…keeper of the Brenner Pass。 These gentlemen
insisted upon cash。 His Lordship therefore was obliged
to take a small quantity of gold with him upon his voyage。
Where could he find this gold？ He could bo