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increased her territory along the coast of the Adriatic and in
Greece； where Athens became a Venetian colony； and in the
islands of Cyprus and Crete and Rhodes。
All this； however； helped little in settling the question
of the Holy Land。 After the first enthusiasm had
worn off； a short crusading trip became part of the liberal
education of every well…bred young man； and there
never was any lack of candidates for service in Palestine。
But the old zeal was gone。 The Crusaders； who
had begun their warfare with deep hatred for the
Mohammedans and great love for the Christian people
of the eastern Roman Empire and Armenia； suffered
a complete change of heart。 They came to despise the
Greeks of Byzantium； who cheated them and frequently betrayed
the cause of the Cross； and the Armenians and all the
other Levantine races； and they began to appreciate the vir…
tues of their enemies who proved to be generous and fair
opponents。
Of course； it would never do to say this openly。 But when
the Crusader returned home； he was likely to imitate the manners
which he had learned from his heathenish foe； compared
to whom the average western knight was still a good deal of a
country bumpkin。 He also brought with him several new
food…stuffs； such as peaches and spinach which he planted in his
garden and grew for his own benefit。 He gave up the barbarous
custom of wearing a load of heavy armour and appeared
in the flowing robes of silk or cotton which were the traditional
habit of the followers of the Prophet and were originally worn
by the Turks。 Indeed the Crusades； which had begun as a
punitive expedition against the Heathen； became a course of
general instruction in civilisation for millions of young Europeans。
From a military and political point of view the Crusades
were a failure。 Jerusalem and a number of cities were taken
and lost。 A dozen little kingdoms were established in Syria
and Palestine and Asia Minor； but they were re…conquered by
the Turks and after the year 1244 （when Jerusalem became
definitely Turkish） the status of the Holy Land was the same
as it had been before 1095。
But Europe had undergone a great change。 The people of
the west had been allowed a glimpse of the light and the sunshine
and the beauty of the east。 Their dreary castles no
longer satisfied them。 They wanted a broader life。 Neither
Church nor State could give this to them。
They found it in the cities。
THE MEDIAEVAL CITY
WHY THE PEOPLE OF THE MIDDLE AGES
SAID THAT ‘‘CITY AIR IS FREE AIR''
THE early part of the Middle Ages had been an era of
pioneering and of settlement。 A new people； who thus far
had lived outside the wild range of forest； mountains and
marshes which protected the north…eastern frontier of the Roman
Empire； had forced its way into the plains of western
Europe and had taken possession of most of the land。 They
were restless； as all pioneers have been since the beginning of
time。 They liked to be ‘‘on the go。'' They cut down the
forests and they cut each other's throats with equal energy。
Few of them wanted to live in cities。 They insisted upon being
‘‘free；'' they loved to feel the fresh air of the hillsides fill their
lungs while they drove their herds across the wind…swept pastures。
When they no longer liked their old homes； they pulled
up stakes and went away in search of fresh adventures。
The weaker ones died。 The hardy fighters and the courageous
women who had followed their men into the wilderness
survived。 In this way they developed a strong race of
men。 They cared little for the graces of life。 They were too
busy to play the fiddle or write pieces of poetry。 They had
little love for discussions。 The priest； ‘‘the learned man'' of the
village （and before the middle of the thirteenth century； a layman
who could read and write was regarded as a ‘‘sissy''） was
supposed to settle all questions which had no direct practical
value。 Meanwhile the German chieftain； the Frankish Baron；
the Northman Duke （or whatever their names and titles） occupied
their share of the territory which once had been part of
the great Roman Empire and among the ruins of past glory；
they built a world of their own which pleased them mightily
and which they considered quite perfect。
They managed the affairs of their castle and the surrounding
country to the best of their ability。 They were as faithful
to the commandments of the Church as any weak mortal could
hope to be。 They were sufficiently loyal to their king or emperor
to keep on good terms with those distant but always dangerous
potentates。 In short； they tried to do right and to be
fair to their neighbours without being exactly unfair to their
own interests。
It was not an ideal world in which they found themselves。
The greater part of the people were serfs or ‘‘villains；'' farm…
hands who were as much a part of the soil upon which they
lived as the cows and sheep whose stables they shared。 Their
fate was not particularly happy nor was it particularly
unhappy。 But what was one to do？ The good Lord who ruled
the world of the Middle Ages had undoubtedly ordered everything
for the best。 If He； in his wisdom； had decided that
there must be both knights and serfs； it was not the duty of
these faithful sons of the church to question the arrangement。
The serfs therefore did not complain but when they were too
hard driven； they would die off like cattle which are not fed
and stabled in the right way； and then something would be hastily
done to better their condition。 But if the progress of the
world had been left to the serf and his feudal master； we would
still be living after the fashion of the twelfth century； saying
‘‘abracadabra'' when we tried to stop a tooth…ache； and feeling
a deep contempt and hatred for the dentist who offered to help
us with his ‘‘science；'' which most likely was of Mohammedan
or heathenish origin and therefore both wicked and useless。
When you grow up you will discover that many people do
not believe in ‘‘progress'' and they will prove to you by the
terrible deeds of some of our own contemporaries that ‘‘the
world does not change。'' But I hope that you will not pay
much attention to such talk。 You see； it took our ancestors
almost a million years to learn how to walk on their hind legs。
Other centuries had to go by before their animal…like grunts
developed into an understandable language。 Writingthe art
of preserving our ideas for the benefit of future generations；
without which no progress is possible was invented only four
thousand years ago。 The idea of turning the forces of nature
into the obedient servants of man was quite new in the days of
your own grandfather。 It seems to me； therefore； that we are
making progress at an unheard…of rate of speed。 Perhaps we
have paid a little too much attention to the mere physical comforts
of life。 That will change in due course of time and we
sh