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Italian possessions to Charles of Anjou； the brother of that
King Louis of France who became famous as Saint Louis。
This led to more warfare。 Conrad V； the son of Conrad IV；
and the last of the Hohenstaufens； tried to regain the kingdom；
and was defeated and decapitated at Naples。 But twenty years
later； the French who had made themselves thoroughly unpopular
in Sicily were all murdered during the so…called Sicilian
Vespers； and so it went。
The quarrel between the Popes and the Emperors was
never settled； but after a while the two enemies learned to
leave each other alone。
In the year 1278； Rudolph of Hapsburg was elected Emperor。
He did not take the trouble to go to Rome to be
crowned。 The Popes did not object and in turn they kept
away from Germany。 This meant peace but two entire centuries
which might have been used for the purpose of internal
organisation had been wasted in useless warfare。
It is an ill wind however that bloweth no good to some one。
The little cities of Italy； by a process of careful balancing；
had managed to increase their power and their independence
at the expense of both Emperors and Popes。 When the rush
for the Holy Land began； they were able to handle the transportation
problem of the thousands of eager pilgrims who were
clamoring for passage； and at the end of the Crusades they
had built themselves such strong defences of brick and of gold
that they could defy Pope and Emperor with equal indifference。
Church and State fought each other and a third partythe
mediaeval cityran away with the spoils。
THE CRUSADES
BUT ALL THESE DIFFERENT QUARRELS
WERE FORGOTTEN WHEN THE TURKS
TOOK THE HOLY LAND； DESECRATED THE
HOLY PLACES AND INTERFERED SERIOUSLY
WITH THE TRADE FROM EAST TO
WEST。 EUROPE WENT CRUSADING
DURING three centuries there had been peace between Christians
and Moslems except in Spain and in the eastern Roman
Empire； the two states defending the gateways of Europe。
The Mohammedans having conquered Syria in the seventh
century were in possession of the Holy Land。 But they regarded
Jesus as a great prophet （though not quite as great
as Mohammed）； and they did not interfere with the pilgrims
who wished to pray in the church which Saint Helena； the
mother of the Emperor Constantine； had built on the spot of
the Holy Grave。 But early in the eleventh century； a Tartar
tribe from the wilds of Asia； called the Seljuks or Turks；
became masters of the Mohammedan state in western Asia and
then the period of tolerance came to an end。 The Turks took
all of Asia Minor away from the eastern Roman Emperors
and they made an end to the trade between east and west。
Alexis； the Emperor； who rarely saw anything of his Christian
neighbours of the west； appealed for help and pointed to
the danger which threatened Europe should the Turks take
Constantinople。
The Italian cities which had established colonies along the
coast of Asia Minor and Palestine； in fear for their possessions；
reported terrible stories of Turkish atrocities and Christian
suffering。 All Europe got excited。
Pope Urban II； a Frenchman from Reims； who had been
educated at the same famous cloister of Cluny which had
trained Gregory VII； thought that the time had come for
action。 The general state of Europe was far from satisfactory。
The primitive agricultural methods of that day （unchanged
since Roman times） caused a constant scarcity of food。 There
was unemployment and hunger and these are apt to lead to
discontent and riots。 Western Asia in older days had fed millions。
It was an excellent field for the purpose of immigration。
Therefore at the council of Clermont in France in the year
1095 the Pope arose； described the terrible horrors which the
infidels had inflicted upon the Holy Land； gave a glowing
description of this country which ever since the days of Moses
had been overflowing with milk and honey； and exhorted the
knights of France and the people of Europe in general to
leave wife and child and deliver Palestine from the Turks。
A wave of religious hysteria swept across the continent。
All reason stopped。 Men would drop their hammer and saw；
walk out of their shop and take the nearest road to the east
to go and kill Turks。 Children would leave their homes to ‘‘go
to Palestine'' and bring the terrible Turks to their knees by
the mere appeal of their youthful zeal and Christian piety。
Fully ninety percent of those enthusiasts never got within
sight of the Holy Land。 They had no money。 They were
forced to beg or steal to keep alive。 They became a danger
to the safety of the highroads and they were killed by the
angry country people。
The first Crusade； a wild mob of honest Christians； defaulting
bankrupts； penniless noblemen and fugitives from justice；
following the lead of half…crazy Peter the Hermit and Walter…
without…a…Cent； began their campaign against the Infidels by
murdering all the Jews whom they met by the way。 They
got as far as Hungary and then they were all killed。
This experience taught the Church a lesson。 Enthusiasm
alone would not set the Holy Land free。 Organisation was
as necessary as good…will and courage。 A year was spent in
training and equipping an army of 200；000 men。 They were
placed under command of Godfrey of Bouillon； Robert； duke
of Normandy； Robert； count of Flanders； and a number of
other noblemen； all experienced in the art of war。
In the year 1096 this second crusade started upon its long
voyage。 At Constantinople the knights did homage to the
Emperor。 （For as I have told you； traditions die hard； and
a Roman Emperor； however poor and powerless； was still held
in great respect）。 Then they crossed into Asia； killed all the
Moslems who fell into their hands； stormed Jerusalem； massacred
the Mohammedan population； and marched to the Holy
Sepulchre to give praise and thanks amidst tears of piety and
gratitude。 But soon the Turks were strengthened by the arrival
of fresh troops。 Then they retook Jerusalem and in turn
killed the faithful followers of the Cross。
During the next two centuries； seven other crusades took
place。 Gradually the Crusaders learned the technique of the
trip。 The land voyage was too tedious and too dangerous。
They preferred to cross the Alps and go to Genoa or Venice
where they took ship for the east。 The Genoese and the Venetians
made this trans…Mediterranean passenger service a very
profitable business。 They charged exorbitant rates； and when
the Crusaders （most of whom had very little money） could not
pay the price； these Italian ‘‘profiteers'' kindly allowed them
to ‘‘work their way across。'' In return for a fare from Venice
to Acre； the Crusader undertook to do a stated amount of
fighting for the owners of his vessel。 In this way Venice greatly
increased her territory along the coast of the Adriatic and in
Greece； where Athens became a Venetian colony； and in the
i