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But the fact that there were two different heirs to the
Roman tradition placed the faithful burghers of the Middle
Ages in a difficult position。 The theory behind the mediaeval
political system was both sound and simple。 While the worldly
master （the emperor） looked after the physical well…being of
his subjects； the spiritual master （the Pope） guarded their
souls。
In practice； however； the system worked very badly。 The
Emperor invariably tried to interfere with the affairs of the
church and the Pope retaliated and told the Emperor how
he should rule his domains。 Then they told each other to mind
their own business in very unceremonious language and the
inevitable end was war。
Under those circumstances； what were the people to do；
A good Christian obeyed both the Pope and his King。 But
the Pope and the Emperor were enemies。 Which side should
a dutiful subject and an equally dutiful Christian take？
It was never easy to give the correct answer。 When the
Emperor happened to be a man of energy and was sufficiently
well provided with money to organise an army； he was very
apt to cross the Alps and march on Rome； besiege the Pope
in his own palace if need be； and force His Holiness to obey
the imperial instructions or suffer the consequences。
But more frequently the Pope was the stronger。 Then the
Emperor or the King together with all his subjects was
excommunicated。 This meant that all churches were closed； that no
one could be baptised； that no dying man could be given absolution
in short； that half of the functions of mediaeval government
came to an end。
More than that； the people were absolved from their oath of
loyalty to their sovereign and were urged to rebel against their
master。 But if they followed this advice of the distant Pope
and were caught； they were hanged by their near…by Lege
Lord and that too was very unpleasant。
Indeed； the poor fellows were in a difficult position and
none fared worse than those who lived during the latter half of
the eleventh century； when the Emperor Henry IV of Germany
and Pope Gregory VII fought a two…round battle which
decided nothing and upset the peace of Europe for almost fifty
years。
In the middle of the eleventh century there had been a
strong movement for reform in the church。 The election of the
Popes； thus far； had been a most irregular affair。 It was to the
advantage of the Holy Roman Emperors to have a well…disposed
priest elected to the Holy See。 They frequently came
to Rome at the time of election and used their influence for
the benefit of one of their friends。
In the year 1059 this had been changed。 By a decree of
Pope Nicholas II the principal priests and deacons of the
churches in and around Rome were organised into the so…
called College of Cardinals； and this gathering of prominent
churchmen （the word ‘‘Cardinal'' meant principal） was given
the exclusive power of electing the future Popes。
In the year 1073 the College of Cardinals elected a priest
by the name of Hildebrand； the son of very simple parents in
Tuscany； as Pope； and he took the name of Gregory VII。
His energy was unbounded。 His belief in the supreme powers
of his Holy Office was built upon a granite rock of conviction
and courage。 In the mind of Gregory； the Pope was not only
the absolute head of the Christian church； but also the highest
Court of Appeal in all worldly matters。 The Pope who had
elevated simple German princes to the dignity of Emperor
could depose them at will。 He could veto any law passed by
duke or king or emperor； but whosoever should question a
papal decree； let him beware； for the punishment would be
swift and merciless。
Gregory sent ambassadors to all the European courts to
inform the potentates of Europe of his new laws and asked
them to take due notice of their contents。 William the Conqueror
promised to be good； but Henry IV； who since the age
of six had been fighting with his subjects； had no intention of
submitting to the Papal will。 He called together a college of
German bishops； accused Gregory of every crime under the
sun and then had him deposed by the council of Worms。
The Pope answered with excommunication and a demand
that the German princes rid themselves of their unworthy ruler。
The German princes； only too happy to be rid of Henry； asked
the Pope to come to Augsburg and help them elect a new Emperor。
Gregory left Rome and travelled northward。 Henry；
who was no fool； appreciated the danger of his position。 At
all costs he must make peace with the Pope； and he must do
it at once。 In the midst of winter he crossed the Alps and
hastened to Canossa where the Pope had stopped for a short
rest。 Three long days； from the 25th to the 28th of January
of the year 1077； Henry； dressed as a penitent pilgrim
（but with a warm sweater underneath his monkish garb）；
waited outside the gates of the castle of Canossa。
Then he was allowed to enter and was pardoned for
his sins。 But the repentance did not last long。
As soon as Henry had returned to Germany； he behaved
exactly as before。 Again he was excommunicated。 For the
second time a council of German bishops deposed Gregory；
but this time； when Henry crossed the Alps he was at
the head of a large army； besieged Rome and forced Gregory
to retire to Salerno； where he died in exile。 This first violent
outbreak decided nothing。 As soon as Henry was back in
Germany； the struggle between Pope and Emperor was continued。
The Hohenstaufen family which got hold of the Imperial
German Throne shortly afterwards； were even more independent
than their predecessors。 Gregory had claimed that the
Popes were superior to all kings because they （the Popes） at
the Day of Judgement would be responsible for the behaviour
of all the sheep of their flock； and in the eyes of God； a king
was one of that faithful herd。
Frederick of Hohenstaufen； commonly known as Barbarossa
or Red Beard； set up the counter…claim that the Empire
had been bestowed upon his predecessor ‘‘by God himself''
and as the Empire included Italy and Rome； he began a campaign
which was to add these ‘‘lost provinces'' to the northern
country。 Barbarossa was accidentally drowned in Asia Minor
during the second Crusade； but his son Frederick II； a brilliant
young man who in his youth had been exposed to the civilisation
of the Mohammedans of Sicily； continued the war。 The
Popes accused him of heresy。 It is true that Frederick seems
to have felt a deep and serious contempt for the rough Christian
world of the North； for the boorish German Knights and
the intriguing Italian priests。 But he held his tongue； went
on a Crusade and took Jerusalem from the infidel and was
duly crowned as King of the Holy City。 Even this act did not
placate the Popes。 They deposed Frederick and gave his
Italian possessions to Charles of Anjou； the brother of that
King Louis of France who became famous as Saint Lo