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governor to Athens to rule this turbulent province。 In this
way； Macedonia and Greece became buffer states which protected
Rome's eastern frontier。
Meanwhile right across the Hellespont lay the Kingdom of
Syria； and Antiochus III； who ruled that vast land； had shown
great eagerness when his distinguished guest； General Han…
nibal； explained to him how easy it would be to invade Italy
and sack the city of Rome。
Lucius Scipio； a brother of Scipio the African fighter who
had defeated Hannibal and his Carthaginians at Zama； was
sent to Asia Minor。 He destroyed the armies of the Syrian
king near Magnesia （in the year 190 B。C。） Shortly afterwards；
Antiochus was lynched by his own people。 Asia Minor
became a Roman protectorate and the small City…Republic of
Rome was mistress of most of the lands which bordered upon
the Mediterranean。
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
HOW THE REPUBLIC OF ROME AFTER CENTURIES
OF UNREST AND REVOLUTION BECAME
AN EMPIRE
WHEN the Roman armies returned from these many victorious
campaigns； they were received with great jubilation。
Alas and alack！ this sudden glory did not make the country any
happier。 On the contrary。 The endless campaigns had ruined
the farmers who had been obliged to do the hard work of Empire
making。 It had placed too much power in the hands of the
successful generals （and their private friends） who had used
the war as an excuse for wholesale robbery。
The old Roman Republic had been proud of the simplicity
which had characterised the lives of her famous men。 The
new Republic felt ashamed of the shabby coats and the high
principles which had been fashionable in the days of its grandfathers。
It became a land of rich people ruled by rich people
for the benefit of rich people。 As such it was doomed to
disastrous failure； as I shall now tell you。
Within less than a century and a half。 Rome had become
the mistress of practically all the land around the Mediterranean。
In those early days of history a prisoner of war lost
his freedom and became a slave。 The Roman regarded war as
a very serious business and he showed no mercy to a conquered
foe。 After the fall of Carthage； the Carthaginian women and
children were sold into bondage together with their own slaves。
And a like fate awaited the obstinate inhabitants of Greece and
Macedonia and Spain and Syria when they dared to revolt
against the Roman power。
Two thousand years ago a slave was merely a piece of
machinery。 Nowadays a rich man invests his money in factories。
The rich people of Rome （senators； generals and war…
profiteers） invested theirs in land and in slaves。 The land
they bought or took in the newly…acquired provinces。 The
slaves they bought in open market wherever they happened to
be cheapest。 During most of the third and second centuries
before Christ there was a plentiful supply； and as a result the
landowners worked their slaves until they dropped dead in their
tracks； when they bought new ones at the nearest bargain…counter
of Corinthian or Carthaginian captives。
And now behold the fate of the freeborn farmer！
He had done his duty toward Rome and he had fought her
battles without complaint。 But when he came home after ten；
fifteen or twenty years； his lands were covered with weeds and
his family had been ruined。 But he was a strong man and
willing to begin life anew。 He sowed and planted and waited
for the harvest。 He carried his grain to the market together
with his cattle and his poultry； to find that the large landowners
who worked their estates with slaves could underbid him all
along the line。 For a couple of years he tried to hold his own。
Then he gave up in despair。 He left the country and he went
to the nearest city。 In the city he was as hungry as he had been
before on the land。 But he shared his misery with thousands
of other disinherited beings。 They crouched together in filthy
hovels in the suburbs of the large cities。 They were apt
to get sick and die from terrible epidemics。 They were all
profoundly discontented。 They had fought for their country and
this was their reward。 They were always willing to listen to
those plausible spell…binders who gather around a public
grievance like so many hungry vultures； and soon they became a
grave menace to the safety of the state。
But the class of the newly…rich shrugged its shoulders。
‘‘We have our army and our policemen；'' they argued； ‘‘they
will keep the mob in order。'' And they hid themselves behind
the high walls of their pleasant villas and cultivated their
gardens and read the poems of a certain Homer which a Greek
slave had just translated into very pleasing Latin hexameters。
In a few families however the old tradition of unselfish
service to the Commonwealth continued。 Cornelia； the daughter
of Scipio Africanus； had been married to a Roman by the
name of Gracchus。 She had two sons； Tiberius and Gaius。
When the boys grew up they entered politics and tried to bring
about certain much…needed reforms。 A census had shown
that most of the land of the Italian peninsula was owned by
two thousand noble families。 Tiberius Gracchus； having been
elected a Tribune； tried to help the freemen。 He revived two
ancient laws which restricted the number of acres which a single
owner might possess。 In this way he hoped to revive the
valuable old class of small and independent freeholders。 The
newly…rich called him a robber and an enemy of the state。
There were street riots。 A party of thugs was hired to kill the
popular Tribune。 Tiberius Gracchus was attacked when he
entered the assembly and was beaten to death。 Ten years later
his brother Gaius tried the experiment of reforming a nation
against the expressed wishes of a strong privileged class。 He
passed a ‘‘poor law'' which was meant to help the destitute
farmers。 Eventually it made the greater part of the Roman
citizens into professional beggars。
He established colonies of destitute people in distant parts
of the empire； but these settlements failed to attract the right
sort of people。 Before Gaius Gracchus could do more harm he
too was murdered and his followers were either killed or exiled。
The first two reformers had been gentlemen。 The two who
came after were of a very different stamp。 They were
professional soldiers。 One was called Marius。 The name of the
other was Sulla。 Both enjoyed a large personal following。
Sulla was the leader of the landowners。 Marius； the victor
in a great battle at the foot of the Alps when the Teutons
and the Cimbri had been annihilated； was the popular hero
of the disinherited freemen。
Now it happened in the year 88 B。C。 that the Senate of
Rome was greatly disturbed by rumours that came from Asia。
Mithridates； king of a country along the shores of the Black
Sea； and a Greek on his mother's side； had seen the possibility
of establishing a second Alexandrian Empire。 He began his
campaign for world…