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abstract metaphysical propositions respecting the world； that there is no chance； no leaps or
bounds in nature … the law of continuity。 Wolff excludes natural science and natural history。 The
third part of the metaphysic is rational psychology or pneumatology； the philosophy of the soul；
which deals with the simplicity； immortality； immateriality of the soul。 Finally； the fourth is natural
theology； which sets forth the proofs of the existence of God。（2） Wolff also inserts （chap。 iii。） an
empirical psychology。 Practical philosophy he divides into the Rights of Nature； Morality； the
Rights of Nations or Politics； and Economics。
The whole is propounded in geometric forms such as definitions； axioms； theorems； scholia；
corollaries； &c。 In mathematics the understanding is in its proper place； for the triangle must
remain the triangle。 Wolff on the one hand started upon a large range of investigation； and one
quite indefinite in character； and on the other； held to a strictly methodical manner with regard to
propositions and their proofs。 The method is really similar to that of Spinoza； only it is more
wooden and lifeless than his。 Wolff applied the same methods to every sort of content … even to
that which is altogether empirical； such as his so…called applied mathematics； into which he
introduces many useful arts； bringing the most ordinary reflections and directions into the geometric
form。 In many cases this undoubtedly gives his work a most pedantic aspect； especially when the
content directly justifies itself to our conception without this form at all。 For Wolff proceeds by first
laying down certain definitions； which really rest upon our ordinary conceptions； since these he
translated into the empty form of determinations of the understanding。 Hence the definitions are
merely nominal definitions； and we know whether they are correct only by seeing whether they
correspond to conceptions which are referred to their simple thoughts。 The syllogism is the form of
real importance in this mode of reasoning； and with Wolff it often attains to its extreme of rigidity
and formalism。
Under mathematics； which is the subject of four small volumes； Wolff also treats of architecture
and military science。 One of the propositions in Architecture is this： 〃Windows must be wide
enough for two persons。〃 The making of a door is also propounded as a task； and the solution
thereof given。 The next best example comes from the art of warfare。 The 〃Fourth proposition。 The
approach to the fortress must always be harder for the enemy the nearer he comes to it。〃 Instead
of saying because the danger is greater； which would be trivial； there follows the 〃Proof。 The
nearer the enemy comes to the fortress； the greater the danger。 But the greater the danger the
greater the resistance that must be offered in order to defy the attacks； and； so far as may be；
avert the danger。 Hence the nearer the enemy is to the fort the harder must the approach be made
for him。 Q。E。D。〃（3） Since the increase of the danger is given as the reason； the whole is false； and
the contrary may be said with equal truth。 For if at the beginning all possible resistance is offered
to the enemy； he cannot get nearer the fortress at all； and thus the danger cannot become greater。
The greater resistance has a real cause； and not this foolish one … namely； that because the garrison
is now at closer quarters； and consequently operates in a narrow field； it can offer a greater
resistance。 In this most trivial way Wolff proceeds with every sort of content。 This barbarism of
pedantry； or this pedantry of barbarism； represented as it is in its whole breadth and extent；
necessarily brought itself into disrepute； and without there being a definite consciousness of the
reason why the geometric method is not the only and ultimate method of knowledge； instinct and
an immediate consciousness of the foolishness of its applications caused this method to be set
aside。
C 3。 THE POPULAR PHILOSOPHY OF
GERMANY。
Popular philosophy flatters our ordinary consciousness； makes it the ultimate standard。 Although
with Spinoza we begin with pre…supposed definitions； the content is still profoundly speculative in
nature； and it is not derived from the ordinary consciousness。 In Spinoza thinking is not merely the
form； for the content belongs to thinking itself； it is the content of thought in itself。 In the speculative
content the instinct of reason satisfies itself on its own account； because this content； as a totality
which integrates itself within itself； at once in itself justifies itself to thought。 The content in Spinoza
is only without ground in so far as it has no external ground； but is a ground in itself。 But if the
content is finite； a demand for an external ground is indicated； since in such a case we desire to
have a ground other than this finite。 In its matter the philosophy of Wolff is indeed a popular
philosophy； even if in form it still makes thought authoritative。 Until the time of Kant the philosophy
of Wolff was thus pre…eminent； Baumgarten； Crusius； and Moses Mendelssohn worked each of
them independently on the same lines as Wolff； the philosophy of the last…mentioned was popular
and graceful in form。 The Wolffian philosophy was thus carried on； although it had cast off its
pedantic methods： no further progress was however made。 The question dealt with was how
perfection could be attained … what it is possible to think and what not； metaphysic was reduced to
its slightest consistency and to its completest vacuity； so that in its texture not a single thread
remained secure。 Mendelssohn considered himself； and was considered； the greatest of
philosophers； and was lauded as such by his friends。 In his 〃Morgenstunden〃 we really find a dry
Wolffian philosophy； however much these gentlemen endeavoured to give their dull abstractions a
bright Platonic form。
The forms of Philosophy which we have considered bear the character which pertains specially to
metaphysics； of proceeding from general determinations of the understanding； but of combining
therewith experience and observation； or the empiric method in general。 One side of this
metaphysic is that the opposites of thought are brought into consciousness； and that attention is
directed upon the solution of this contradiction。 Thought and Being or extension； God and the
world； good and evil； the power and prescience of God on the one side； and the evil in the world
and human freedom on the other： these contradictions； the opposites of soul and spirit； things
conceived and things material； and their mutual relation； have occupied all men's attention。 The
solution of these opposites and contradictions has still to be given； and God is set forth as the One
in whom all these contradictions are solved。 This is what is common to all these philosophies as far
as their main elements are concerned。 Yet we must likewise remark that these contradictions are
not solved in themselves； i。e。 that the nullity of the supposition is not demonstrated in itself； and
thereby a true concrete solution has not come to pass。 Even if God is recognised as solving