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individuals； but is directed against this private will； and to it all must be obedient。（8） Thus the
whole matter is now placed on quite another footing。 But because the universal will is made to
reside in the will of one monarch； there nevertheless proceeds from this point of view； which is
really correct； a condition of absolute rule； of perfect despotism。 The condition of law does not；
however； mean that the arbitrary will of one man constitutes absolute law； for the universal will is
no despotism； being rational； inasmuch as it is consistently expressed and determined in laws。
Rixner （Handbuch der Geschichte der Philosophie； Vol。 III。 p。 30） says： “Law to him is nothing
but the sum of the conditions of peace extorted by iron necessity from the original wickedness of
mankind。” We might add that in Hobbes we at least find this； that the nature and organism of the
State is established on the principle of human nature； human desire； &c。 The English concerned
themselves greatly with that principle of passive obedience； in accordance with which it is said that
kings receive their power from God。 This； in one aspect； is quite true； but in another it is falsely
taken to mean that they have no responsibility； that their blind desires； their merely subjective will；
is what must be obeyed。
B 4。 CUDWORTH。 CLARKE。 WOLLASTON。
Cudworth wished to revive Plato in England； but to do this after the manner of the demonstrations
which we met with in Descartes； and through a trivial metaphysic of the understanding。 He wrote a
celebrated work： “The true intellectual System of the Universe；” but the Platonic ideas expressed
are often in a clumsy form and mingled with the Christian conceptions of God and angels — all
regarded as particular existent things。 What in Plato is mythical； is here taken as reality in the form
of existence； this is reasoned about just as we reason respecting a matter of ordinary fact； such as
whether it is probable that the French seek to effect a landing in England； and if so； whether they
will successfully accomplish it。 The Christian intellectual world is dragged down to the form of
ordinary actuality and consequently it is ruined。
The name of Clarke is likewise famous in connection with his proof of the existence of God。 There
were quite a number of other English philosophers； whom we do not； however； require to notice；
for Clarke； Wollaston； and others carry on their speculations within forms such as belong to a very
commonplace metaphysic of the understanding。 The manifold systems of moral philosophy which
we find taking their rise in England are drawn up from this same mental standpoint； in them the
implicitude of mind appears in a form of natural existence； namely； of desires and feelings。 Their
principles are found in moral sentiments； benevolent desires； sympathy； &c。 That form alone is
worthy of notice which； on the one hand； represents duty as something which is not foreign； given；
commanded； but as clearly belonging to self…consciousness； even while； on the other hand； it
represents this property as a natural； unconscious； unspiritual； and irrational existence。 Impulse is
blind； a solid existence which cannot get beyond itself like thinking self…consciousness。 It is indeed
true of impulse that its pure activity or its process； and the content； are； as in thought； immediately
posited as the same； it has its content in itself； and this is not dead and passive； but self…acting and
impelling。 But that unity has the form of immediacy only as existent； in the first place it is not a
knowledge； it is not necessary； for it is only taken from inward perception； in the second place； it
is a determinate which does not abrogate itself； beyond which we cannot get； and which thus is not
a universal。 Impulse is no more an infinite than is the fixed category of force。 Such reasoning takes
the impulses in their determinate character from experience； and expresses the appearance of
necessity in the same as an inward existence； as a force。 For instance； the social instinct is a
moment which is found in experience； because man derives all manner of utility from society。
Wherein does the necessity of the State； of society； find its basis？ In a social desire。 This is cause；
just as in the physical world a formal interpretation such as this is always to be found。 The
necessity of any existent fact； such as what pertains to electrical phenomena； finds its basis in a
force which brings it forth； it is merely the form of returning from the external to an inward； of
passing from the existent to what is thought； which is again in turn represented as an existent。
Force is necessitated by reason of the manifestation； we must argue from the latter to the former。
On the other hand； the manifestation takes place through the force； for it is the cause of the
manifestation； we hence have force in one place as reason； and in another as cause。 But in all this
there is no realization of the fact that in respect of form there is a transition from the Notion into
Being and the other way； while in respect of content there is a perfect contingency of
manifestation； we look at electricity in the same way as we look at the fact that men have social
instincts； sympathetic inclinations； and so on。
B 5。 PUFFENDORF。
In the struggle to give to just and equitable relations in the State an independent basis of their own；
and to found a judicial system of government； reflective thought put forth its efforts； and this
became to it a real interest and concern。 And； as in the case of Grotius； it was also true of
Puffendorf； that the instinct of mankind — that is； the social instinct； &c。 — was made the principle。
Samuel von Puffendorf was born in 1632 in Saxony； he studied public law； philosophy； and
mathematics at Leipzig and Jena； in 1661； as a professor at Heidelberg； he made natural and civil
law for the first time academic studies； in 1668 he became tutor in a Swedish family； which office
he later on exchanged for the service of the House of Brandenburg； and in 1694 he died at Berlin
as a privy councillor。 He wrote several works on political law and history； we must specially
mention his work； De jure natur？ et gentium； Libr。 viii。； Londin。 Scan。 1672； 4； and also his
compendium De officio hominis； published at the same place in 1673） 8； and Elementa
jurisprudenti？； universalis。（9） While the divine right of kings was here still recognized —
whereby they rendered account to God alone； or； at all events； were still bound to take counsel of
the Church — the impulses and necessities present in mankind were now considered as well。
These were regarded as the inward principles for private and political law； and from them the
duties both of the government and of rulers were deduced； so that the freedom of mankind might
not be interfered with。 The basis of the state in Puffendorf's view is the social instinct： the highest
end of the state is the peace and security of social life through the transformation of inward duties
as prescribed by； conscience into external duties as compelled by law。（10）
B 6。 NEWTON。