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accepts as true what is thought； but the abrogation of these sensuous qualities simply represents
the negative movement of thought： the essence of body is conditioned through this thought； that is；
it is not true essence。
Descartes now makes his way from the Notion of extension to the laws of motion； as the universal
knowledge of the corporeal in its implicitude； he shows that there is no vacuum； for that would be
an extension without bodily substance； i。e。 a body without body； that there are no atoms （no
indivisible independent existence）； for the same reason； viz。； because the essence of body is
extension。 He further shows that a body is set in motion by something outside of it； but of itself it
continues in a condition of rest； and likewise it must； when in a condition of movement； be brought
to rest by another outside of it — this is the property of inertia。（32） These are unmeaning
propositions； for an abstraction is involved for instance in asserting simple rest and movement in
their opposition。
Extension and motion are the fundamental conceptions in mechanical physics； they represent the
truth of the corporeal world。 It is thus that ideality comes before the mind of Descartes； and he is
far elevated above the reality of the sensuous qualities； although he does not reach so far as to the
separation of this ideality。 He thus remains at the point of view of mechanism pure and simple。
Give me matter （extension） and motion and I will build worlds for you； is what Descartes virtually
says。（33） Space and time were hence to him the only determinations of the material universe。 In
this； then； lies the mechanical fashion of viewing nature； or the natural philosophy of Descartes is
seen to be purely mechanical。（34） Hence changes in matter are due merely to motion； so that
Descartes traces every relationship to the rest and movement of particles； and all material diversity
such as colour； and taste — in short； all bodily qualities and animal phenomena — to mechanism。 In
living beings processes such as that of digestion are mechanical effects which have as principles；
rest and movement。 We here see the ground and origin of the mechanical philosophy； but further
on we find that this is unsatisfactory； for matter and motion do not suffice to explain life。 Yet the
great matter in all this is that thought goes forward in its determinations； and that it constitutes from
these thought…determinations the truth of nature。
In his consideration of the system of the world and the movement of the heavenly bodies；
Descartes has worked out the mechanical view more fully。 He thus comes to speak of the earth；
the sun； &c。； and of his conception of the circling motion of the heavenly bodies in the form of
vortices： of metaphysical hypotheses as to how small particles pass into； out of； and through pores
and act on one another； and finally to saltpetre and gunpowder。（35）
Universal reflections should have the first claim on our attention； but on the other hand the
transition to the determinate is accomplished in a system of Physics which is the result of
observations and experiences； and this is done entirely by means of the understanding。 Descartes
thus mingles many observations with a metaphysic of this nature； and to us the result is hence
obscure。 In this philosophy the thinking treatment of empiricism is thus predominant； and a similar
method has been adopted by philosophers from this time on。 To Descartes and others； Philosophy
had still the more indefinite significance of arriving at knowledge through thought； reflection； and
reasoning。 Speculative cognition； the derivation from the Notion； the free independent
development of the matter itself； was first introduced by Fichte； and consequently what is now
called philosophic knowledge is not yet separated in Descartes from the rest of scientific
knowledge。 In those times all the knowledge of mankind was called philosophy； in Descartes’
metaphysics we thus saw quite empirical reflection and reasoning from particular grounds； from
experiences； facts； phenomena； being brought into play in the na？vest manner； and one has no
sense of speculation in the matter。 The strictly scientific element here really consisted mainly in the
method of proof as it has long been made use of in geometry； and in the ordinary method of the
formal logical syllogism。 Hence it likewise happens that Philosophy； which ought to form a totality
of the sciences； begins with logic and metaphysics； the second part is composed of ordinary
physics and mathematics； mingled no doubt with metaphysical speculations； and the third part；
ethics； deals with the nature of man； his duties； the state； the citizen。 And this is the case with
Descartes。 The first part of the Principia philosophi？ treats De principiis cognitionis human？；
the second De principiis rerum materialium。 This natural philosophy； as a philosophy of
extension； is； however； none other than what a quite ordinary physics or mechanics might at that
time be； and it is still quite hypothetical； we； on the other hand； accurately distinguish empirical
physics and natural philosophy； first likewise pertains to thought。
3。 Descartes never reached the third part； the philosophy of Mind； for； while he made a special
study of physics； in the region of ethics he published one tract only； De passionibus。 In this
reference Descartes treats of thought and human freedom。 He proves freedom from the fact of the
soul thinking that the will is unrestrained； and of that constituting the perfection of mankind。 And
this is quite true。 In respect to the freedom of the will he comes across the difficulty of how to
reconcile it with the divine prescience。 As free； man might do what is not ordained of God
beforehand — this would conflict with the omnipotence and omniscience of God； and if everything
is ordained of God； human freedom would thereby be done away with。 Yet he does not solve the
contradiction contained in these two different aspects without falling into difficulty。 But
conformably to the method which he adopts； and which we pointed out above （pp。 238；239）； he
says： 〃The human mind is finite； God’s power and predetermination are infinite； we are thus not
capable of judging of the relationship in which the freedom of the human soul stands to the
omnipotence and omniscience of God — but in self…consciousness we have the certainty of it given
us as a fact。 And we must hold only to what is certain。〃（36） When he proceeds further much
appears to him still incapable of explanation； but we see obstinacy and caprice likewise exhibited
in his stopping short at the assertion as to the best of his knowledge。 The method of knowledge as
set forth by Descartes； takes the form of a reasoning of the understanding； and is thus without
special interest。
These； then； are the principal points in the Cartesian system。 Some particular assertions made by
Descartes； which have been specially instrumental in giving him fame； have still to be mentioned —
particular forms which have been formerly considered in metaphysics； and likewise by Wolff。 For
example； in the first place we gather that Descartes regarded animals and othe