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objectivity and the content of thought to arise from the perceptions； and one which proceeds to
truth from the independence of thought。
a。 Experience constitutes the first of these methods； viz。 Realism。 Philosophy now signified； or had
as its main attribute； self…thought and the acceptance of the present as that in which truth lay； and
which was thereby knowable。 All that is speculative is pared and smoothed down in order to bring
it under experience。 This present is the existent external nature； and spiritual activity as the political
world and as subjective activity。 The way to truth was to begin from this hypothesis； but not to
remain with it in its external self…isolating actuality； but to lead it to the universal。
i。 The activities of that first method operate； to begin with； on physical nature； from the
observation of which men derive universal laws； and on this basis their knowledge is
founded； the science of nature； however； only reaches to the stage of reflection。 This kind of
experimental physics was once called； and is still called philosophy； as Newton's Principia
philosophi？ naturalis （Vol。 I。 p。 59） show。 This work is one in which the methods of the
finite sciences through observation and deduction are alone present … those sciences which
the French still call the sciences exactes。 To this； the understanding of the individual； piety
was opposed； and hence in this respect philosophy was termed worldly wisdom （Vol。 I。 p。
60）。 Here the Idea in its infinitude is not itself the object of knowledge； but a determinate
content is raised into the universal； or this last in its determinateness for the understanding is
derived from observation； just as is； for instance； done in Keppler's Laws。 In Scholastic
philosophy； on the other hand； man's power of observation was set aside； and disputations
respecting nature at that time proceeded from abstruse hypotheses。
ii。 In the second place； the spiritual was observed as in its realization it constitutes the
spiritual world of states； in order thus to investigate from experience the rights of individuals
as regards one another； and as regards rulers； and the rights of states against states。 Before
this popes anointed kings； just as was done in Old Testament times to those appointed by
God； it was in the Old Testament that the tithe was commanded； the forbidden degrees of
relationship in marriage were also adopted from the Mosaic laws。 What was right and
permissible for kings was demonstrated from Saul's and David's histories； the rights of
priesthood from Samuel … in short； the Old Testament was the source of all the principles of
public law； and it is in this way even now that all papal bulls have their deliverances
confirmed。 It may easily be conceived how much nonsense was in this manner concocted。
Now； however； right was sought for in man himself； and in history； and what had been
accounted right both in peace and in war was explained。 In this way books were composed
which even now are constantly quoted in the Parliament of England。 Men further observed
the desires which could be satisfied in the state and the manner in which satisfaction could
be given to them； in order thus from man himself； from man of the past as well as of the
present； to learn what is right。
b。 The second method； that of Idealism； proceeds from what is inward； according to it everything
is in thought； mind itself is all content。 Here the Idea itself is made the object； that signifies the
thinking it and from it proceeding to the determinate。 What Realism draws from experience is now
derived from thought à priori； or the determinate is also comprehended but not led back to the
universal merely； but to the Idea。
The two methods overlap one another； however； because experience on its side desires to derive
universal laws from observations； while； on the other side； thought proceeding from abstract
universality must still give itself a determinate content； thus a priori and a posteriori methods are
mingled。 In France abstract universality was the more predominant； from England experience took
its rise； and even now it is there held in the greatest respect； Germany proceeded from the
concrete Idea； from the inwardness of mind and spirit。
2。 The questions of present philosophy； the opposites； the content which occupies the attention of
these modern times； are as follows： —
a。 The first form of the opposition which we have already touched upon in the Middle Ages is the
Idea of God and His Being； and the task imposed is to deduce the existence of God； as pure
spirit； from thought。 Both sides must be comprehended through thought as absolute unity； the
extremest opposition is apprehended as gathered into one unity。 Other subjects which engage our
attention are connected with the same general aim； namely； the bringing about of the inward
reconciliation in the opposition which exists between knowledge and its object。
b。 The second form of opposition is that of Good and Evil … the opposition of the assertion of
independent will to the positive and universal； the origin of evil must be known。 Evil is plainly the
〃other；〃 the negation of God as Holiness； because He is； because He is wise； good； and at the
same time almighty； evil is contradictory to Him； an endeavour is made to reconcile this
contradiction。
c。 The third form of opposition is that of the freedom of man and necessity。
i。 The individual is clearly not determined in any other way than from himself； he is the
absolute beginning of determination； in the 'I；' in the self； a power of decision is clearly to be
found。 This freedom is in opposition to the theory that God alone is really absolutely
determining。 Further； when that which happens is in futurity； the determining of it through
God is regarded as Providence and the foreknowledge of God。 In this； however； a new
contradiction is involved； inasmuch as because God's knowledge is not merely subjective；
that which God knows likewise is。
ii。 Further still； human freedom is in opposition to necessity as the determinateness of
nature； man is dependent on nature； and the external as well as the inward nature of man is
his necessity as against his freedom。
iii。 Considered objectively； this opposition is that between final causes and efficient causes；
i。e。； between the acts of freedom and the acts of necessity。
iv。 This opposition between the freedom of man and natural necessity has finally likewise
the further form of community of soul and body； of commercium animi cum corpore； as it
has been called； wherein the soul appears as the simple； ideal； and free； and the body as the
manifold； material and necessary。
These matters occupy the attention of science； and they are of a completely different nature from
the interests of ancient philosophy。 The difference is this； that here there is a consciousness of an
opposition； which is certainly likewise contained in the subjects with which the l