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for thought must； be taken from thought itself … and the determination that we must
commence； conclude and think from experience。 This is the opposition between
rationalism and empiricism； but it is really a subordinate one； because even the
metaphysical mode in philosophy； which only allows validity to immanent thought；
does not take what is methodically developed from the necessity of thought； but in
the old way derives its content from inward or outward experience； and through
reflection and meditation renders it abstract。 The form of philosophy which is first
reached through thought is metaphysics； the form of the thinking understanding； this
period has； as its outstanding figures； Descartes and Spinoza； likewise Malebranche
and Locke； Leibnitz and Wolff。 The second form is Scepticism and Criticism with
regard to the thinking understanding； to metaphysics as such； and to the universal of
empiricism； here we shall go on to speak of representatives of the Scottish； German；
and French philosophies； the French materialists again turn back to metaphysics。
Chapter I。 … The Metaphysics of the Understanding
METAPHYSICS is what reaches after substance； and this implies that one
unity； one thought is maintained in opposition to dualism； just as Being was
amongst the ancients。 In metaphysics itself we have； however； the opposition
between substantiality and individuality。 What comes first is the spontaneous；
but likewise uncritical； metaphysics； and it is represented by Descartes and
Spinoza； who assert the unity of Being and thought。 The second stage is found
in Locke； who treats of the opposition itself inasmuch as he considers the
metaphysical Idea of experience； that is the origin of thoughts and their
justification； not yet entering on the question of whether they are absolutely
true。 In the third place we have Leibnitz's monad … the world viewed as a
totality。
A。 First Division
We here encounter the innate ideas of Descartes。 The philosophy of
Spinoza； in the second place； is related to the philosophy of Descartes
as its necessary development only； the method is an important part of it。
A method which stands alongside of Spinozism and which is also a
perfected development of Cartesianism； is； in the third place； that by
which Malebranche has represented this philosophy。
1。 Descartes
2。 Spinoza
3。 Malebranche
B。 Second Division
It was Locke who became the instrument of setting forth this entire
manner of thinking in a systematic way； for he worked out Bacon's
position more fully。 And if Bacon made sensuous Being to be the truth；
Locke demonstrated the universal； Thought； to be present in sensuous
Being； or showed that we obtained the universal； the true； from
experience。 From Locke a wide culture proceeds； influencing English
philosophers more especially； the forms adopted by this school were
various； but the principle was the same； it became a general method of
regarding things in a popular way； and calls itself Philosophy； although
the object of Philosophy is not to be met with here。
1。 Locke
2。 Hugo Grotius
3。 Thomas Hobbes
4。 Cudworth； Clarke； Wollaston
5。 Puffendorf
6。 Newton
C。 Third Division
The third development of the philosophy of the understanding is that
represented by Leibnitz and Wolff。 If Wolff's metaphysics is divested
of its rigid form； we have as a result the later popular philosophy。
1。 Leibnitz
2。 Wolff
3。 German Popular Philosophy
Chapter II。 … Transition Period
THE decadence which we find in thought until the philosophy of Kant is
reached； is manifested in what was at this time advocated in opposition to the
metaphysic of the understanding； and which may be called a general popular
philosophy； a reflecting empiricism； which to a greater or less extent becomes
itself a metaphysic； just as； on the other hand； that metaphysic； in as far as it
extended to particular sciences； becomes empiricism。 As against these
metaphysical contradictions； as against the artificialities of the metaphysical
synthesis； as against the assistance of God； the preestablished harmony； the
best possible world； &c。； as against this merely artificial understanding； we
now find that fixed principles； immanent in mind； have been asserted or
maintained respecting what is felt； intuitively perceived and honoured in the
cultured human breast。 And in distinction to the assertion that we only find the
solution in the principles of a fixed and permanent content form a reconciliation
here and now； they adopt a position of independence； and assume an
intellectual standing…ground which they find in what has generally been termed
the healthy human understanding。 Such determinations may indeed be found to
be perfectly good and valid if the feelings； intuitions； heart and understanding
of man be morally and intellectually fashioned； for in that case better and more
noble feelings and desires may rule in men and a more universal content； may
be expressed in these principles。 But when men make what we call sound
reason … that which is by nature implanted in man's breast … into the content
and the principle； the healthy human understanding discovers itself to be
identical with a feeling and knowledge belonging to nature。 The Indians who
worship a cow； and who expose or slay newborn children； and commit all
sorts of barbarous deeds； the Egyptians who pray to a bird； the apis； &c。； and
the Turks as well； all possess a healthy human understanding similar in nature。
But the healthy human understanding and the natural feeling of rude and
barbarous Turks； when taken as a standard； result in shocking principles。
When we speak of healthy human understanding； however； of natural feelings；
we always have before our eyes a cultured mind； and those who