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needles and sticks； of which the ants have piled their nest； are a
mass。
The term； I believe； was invented during the Ancien Regime。 Whether
it was or not； it expresses very accurately the life of the many in
those days。 No one would speak； if he wished to speak exactly； of
the masses of the United States； for there every man is； or is
presumed to be； a personage； with his own independence； his own
activities； his own rights and duties。 No one； I believe； would
have talked of the masses in the old feudal times； for then each
individual was someone's man； bound to his master by ties of mutual
service； just or unjust； honourable or base； but still giving him a
personality of duties and rights； and dividing him from his class。
Dividing； I say。 The poor of the Middle Age had little sense of a
common humanity。 Those who owned allegiance to the lord in the next
valley were not their brothers； and at their own lord's bidding；
they buckled on sword and slew the next lord's men； with joyful
heart and good conscience。 Only now and then misery compressed them
into masses； and they ran together； as sheep run together to face a
dog。 Some wholesale wrong made them aware that they were brothers；
at least in the power of starving； and they joined in the cry which
was heard； I believe； in Mecklenburg as late as 1790： 〃Den Edelman
wille wi dodschlagen。〃 Then； in Wat Tyler's insurrections； in
Munster Anabaptisms； in Jacqueries； they proved themselves to be
masses； if nothing better； striking for awhile； by the mere weight
of numbers； blows terrible； though aimlesssoon to be dispersed and
slain in their turn by a disciplined and compact aristocracy。 Yet
not always dispersed； if they could find a leader； as the Polish
nobles discovered to their cost in the middle of the seventeenth
century。 Then Bogdan the Cossack； a wild warrior； not without his
sins； but having deserved well of James Sobieski and the Poles；
found that the neighbouring noble's steward had taken a fancy to his
windmill and his farm upon the Dnieper。 He was thrown into prison
on a frivolous charge； and escaped to the Tatars； leaving his wife
dishonoured； his house burnt； his infant lost in the flames； his
eldest son scourged for protesting against the wrong。 And he
returned； at the head of an army of Tatars； Socinians； Greeks； or
what not； to set free the serfs； and exterminate Jesuits； Jews； and
nobles； throughout Podolia； Volhynia； Red Russia； to desecrate the
altars of God； and slay his servants； to destroy the nobles by
lingering tortures； to strip noble ladies and maidens； and hunt them
to death with the whips of his Cossacks； and after defeating the
nobles in battle after battle； to inaugurate an era of misery and
anarchy from which Poland never recovered。
Thus did the masses of Southern Poland discover； for one generation
at least； that they were not many things； but one thing； a class；
capable of brotherhood and unity； though； alas！ only of such as
belongs to a pack of wolves。 But such outbursts as this were rare
exceptions。 In general； feudalism kept the people divided； and
therefore helpless。 And as feudalism died out； and with it the
personal self…respect and loyalty which were engendered by the old
relations of master and servant； the division still remained； and
the people； in France especially； became merely masses； a swarm of
incoherent and disorganised things intent on the necessaries of
daily bread； like mites crawling over each other in a cheese。
Out of this mass were struggling upwards perpetually； all who had a
little ambition； a little scholarship； or a little money；
endeavouring to become members of the middle class by obtaining a
Government appointment。 〃A man；〃 says M。 de Tocqueville； 〃endowed
with some education and small means； thought it not decorous to die
without having been a Government officer。〃 〃Every man； according to
his condition；〃 says a contemporary writer； 〃wants to be something
by command of the king。〃
It was not merely the 〃natural vanity〃 of which M。 de Tocqueville
accuses his countrymen； which stirred up in them this eagerness
after place； for we see the same eagerness in other nations of the
Continent； who cannot be accused （as wholes） of that weakness。 The
fact is； a Government place； or a Government decoration； cross；
ribbon； or what not； is； in a country where self…government is
unknown or dead； the only method； save literary fame； which is left
to men in order to assert themselves either to themselves or their
fellow…men。
A British or American shopkeeper or farmer asks nothing of his
Government。 He can； if he chooses； be elected to some local office
（generally unsalaried） by the votes of his fellow…citizens。 But
that is his right； and adds nothing to his respectability。 The test
of that latter； in a country where all honest callings are equally
honourable； is the amount of money he can make； and a very sound
practical test that is； in a country where intellect and capital are
free。 Beyond that； he is what he is； and wishes to be no more； save
what he can make himself。 He has his rights； guaranteed by law and
public opinion； and as long as he stands within them； and （as he
well phrases it） behaves like a gentleman； he considers himself as
good as any man； and so he is。 But under the bureaucratic Regime of
the Continent； if a man had not 〃something by command of the king；〃
he was nothing； and something he naturally wished to be； even by
means of a Government which he disliked and despised。 So in France；
where innumerable petty posts were regular articles of sale； anyone；
it seems； who had saved a little money； found it most profitable to
invest it in a beadledom of some kindto the great detriment of the
country； for he thus withdrew his capital from trade； but to his own
clear gain； for he thereby purchased some immunity from public
burdens； and； as it were； compounded once and for all for his taxes。
The petty German princes； it seems； followed the example of France；
and sold their little beadledoms likewise； but even where offices
were not sold； they must be obtained by any and every means； by
everyone who desired not to be as other men were； and to become
Notables； as they were called in France； so he migrated from the
country into the nearest town； and became a member of some small
body…guild； town council； or what not； bodies which were infinite in
number。 In one small town M。 de Tocqueville discovers thirty…six
such bodies； 〃separated from each other by diminutive privileges；
the least honourable of which was still a mark of honour。〃
Quarrelling perpetually with each other for precedence； despising
and oppressing the very menu peuple from whom they had for the most
part sprung； these innumerable small bodies； instead of uniting
their class； only served to split it up more and more； and when the
Revolution broke them up； once and for all； with all other
privileges whatso