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period。〃 That period must be held to begin with the first insidious effect
upon their manners and customs of contact with the dominant race； and
many of the tribes were so influenced long before they ceased to lead the
nomadic life。
The fur…traders； the 〃Black Robe〃 priests； the military； and finally the
Protestant missionaries； were the men who began the disintegration of the
Indian nations and the overthrow of their religion； seventy…five to a
hundred years before they were forced to enter upon reservation life。 We
have no authentic study of them until well along in the transition period；
when whiskey and trade had already debauched their native ideals。
During the era of reconstruction they modified their customs and
beliefs continually； creating a singular admixture of Christian with pagan
superstitions； and an addition to the old folk…lore of disguised Bible stories
under an Indian aspect。 Even their music shows the influence of the
Catholic chants。 Most of the material collected by modern observers is
necessarily of this promiscuous character。
It is noteworthy that the first effect of contact with the whites was an
increase of cruelty and barbarity； an intensifying of the dark shadows in
the picture！ In this manner the 〃Sun Dance〃 of the Plains Indians； the
most important of their public ceremonials； was abused and perverted until
it became a horrible exhibition of barbarism； and was eventually
prohibited by the Government。
In the old days； when a Sioux warrior found himself in the very jaws
of destruction； he might offer a prayer to his father； the Sun； to prolong his
life。 If rescued from imminent danger； he must acknowledge the divine
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favor by making a Sun Dance； according to the vow embraced in his
prayer； in which he declared that he did not fear torture or death； but asked
life only for the sake of those who loved him。 Thus the physical ordeal
was the fulfillment of a vow； and a sort of atonement for what might
otherwise appear to be reprehensible weakness in the face of death。 It
was in the nature of confession and thank…offering to the 〃Great Mystery；〃
through the physical parent； the Sun； and did not embrace a prayer for
future favors。
The ceremonies usually took place from six months to a year after the
making of the vow； in order to admit of suitable preparation； always in
midsummer and before a large and imposing gathering。 They naturally
included the making of a feast； and the giving away of much savage
wealth in honor of the occasion； although these were no essential part of
the religious rite。 When the day came to procure the pole； it was brought
in by a party of warriors； headed by some man of distinction。 The tree
selected was six to eight inches in diameter at the base； and twenty to
twenty…five feet high。 It was chosen and felled with some solemnity；
including the ceremony of the 〃filled pipe；〃 and was carried in the fashion
of a litter； symbolizing the body of the man who made the dance。 A
solitary teepee was pitched on a level spot at some distance from the
village； and the pole raised near at hand with the same ceremony； in the
centre of a circular enclosure of fresh…cut boughs。
Meanwhile； one of the most noted of our old men had carved out of
rawhide； or later of wood； two figures； usually those of a man and a
buffalo。 Sometimes the figure of a bird； supposed to represent the
Thunder； was substituted for the buffalo。 It was customary to paint the
man red and the animal black； and each was suspended from one end of
the crossbar which was securely tied some two feet from the top of the
pole。 I have never been able to determine that this cross had any
significance； it was probably nothing more than a dramatic coincidence
that surmounted the Sun…Dance pole with the symbol of Christianity。
The paint indicated that the man who was about to give thanks
publicly had been potentially dead； but was allowed to live by the
mysterious favor and interference of the Giver of Life。 The buffalo hung
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THE SOUL OF THE INDIAN
opposite the image of his own body in death； because it was the support of
his physical self； and a leading figure in legendary lore。 Following the
same line of thought； when he emerged from the solitary lodge of
preparation； and approached the pole to dance； nude save for his
breechclout and moccasins； his hair loosened and daubed with clay； he
must drag after him a buffalo skull； representing the grave from which he
had escaped。
The dancer was cut or scarified on the chest； sufficient to draw blood
and cause pain； the natural accompaniments of his figurative death。 He
took his position opposite the singers； facing the pole； and dragging the
skull by leather thongs which were merely fastened about his shoulders。
During a later period； incisions were made in the breast or back；
sometimes both； through which wooden skewers were drawn； and secured
by lariats to the pole or to the skulls。 Thus he danced without
intermission for a day and a night； or even longer； ever gazing at the sun in
the daytime； and blowing from time to time a sacred whistle made from
the bone of a goose's wing。
In recent times； this rite was exaggerated and distorted into a mere
ghastly display of physical strength and endurance under torture； almost
on a level with the Caucasian institution of the bull…fight； or the yet more
modern prize…ring。 Moreover； instead of an atonement or thank…offering；
it became the accompaniment of a prayer for success in war； or in a raid
upon the horses of the enemy。 The number of dancers was increased； and
they were made to hang suspended from the pole by their own flesh；
which they must break loose before being released。