按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
Florence even the Condottieri； whatever their origin or education might be； were compelled to accommodate themselves to the popular sentiment； and on receiving the insignia of their office； were harangued before the assembled people by the most learned secretary of state。 It seems that beneath or close to the Loggia de' Lanzithe porch where the government was wont to appear solemnly before the people a tribune or platform _（rostra； ringhiera） _was erected for such purposes。
Anniversaries； especially those of the death of princes； were commonly celebrated by memorial speeches。 Even the funeral oration strictly so called was generally entrusted to a humanist； who delivered it in church； clothed in a secular dress； nor was it only princes； but officials； or persons otherwise distinguished； to whom this honour was paid。 This was also the case with the speeches delivered at weddings or betrothals； with the difference that they seem to have been made in the palace； instead of in church； like that of Filelfo at the betrothal of Anna Sforza to Alfonso of Este in the castle of Milan。 It is still possible that the ceremony may have taken place in the chapel of the castle。 Private families of distinction no doubt also employed such wedding orators as one of the luxuries of high life。 At Ferrara； Guarino was requested on these occasions to send some one or other of his pupils。 The clergy performed only the purely religious ceremonies at weddings and funerals。
The academical speeches； both those made at the installation of a new teacher and at the opening of a new course of lectures were delivered by the professor himself； and treated as occasions of great rhetorical display。 The ordinary university lectures also usually had an oratorical character。
With regard to forensic eloquence； the quality of the audience determined the form of speech。 In case of need it was enriched with all sorts of philosophical and antiquarian learning。
As a special class of speeches we may mention the address made in Italian on the battlefield； either before or after the combat。 Federigo of Urbino was esteemed a classic in this style； he used to pass round among his squadrons as they stood drawn up in order of battle； inspiring them in turn with pride and enthusiasm。 Many of the speeches in the military historians of the fifteenth century； as for instance in Porcellius； may be； in part at least； imaginary； but may be also in part faithful representations of words actually spoken。 The addresses again which were delivered to the Florentine Militia； organized in 1506 chiefly through the influence of Machiavelli； and which were spoken first at reviews； and afterwards at special annual festivals； were of another kind。 They were simply general appeals to the patriotism of the hearers； and were addressed to the assembled troops in the church of each quarter of the city by a citizen in armor； sword in hand。
Finally； the oratory of the pulpit began in the fifteenth century to lose its distinctive peculiarities。 Many of the clergy had entered into the circle of classical culture； and were ambitious of success in it。 The street…preacher Bernardino da Siena； who even in his lifetime passed for a saint and who was worshipped by the populace； was not above taking lessons in rhetoric from the famous Guarino； although he had only to preach in Italian。 Never indeed was more expected from preachers than at that time especially from the Lenten preachers； and there were not a few audiences which could not only tolerate； but which demanded a strong dose of philosophy from the pulpit。 But we have here especially to speak of the distinguished occasional preachers in Latin。 Many of their opportunities had been taken away from them； as has been observed； by learned laymen。 Speeches on particular saints' days； at weddings and funerals； or at the installation of a bishop； and even the introductory speech at the first mass of a clerical friend； or the address at the festival of some religious order； were all left to laymen。 But at all events at the Papal court in the fifteenth century； whatever the occasion might be； the preachers were generally monks。 Under Sixtus IV； Giacomo da Volterra regularly enumerates these preachers； and criticizes them according to the rules of the art。 Fedra Inghirami； famous as an orator under Julius II； had at least received holy orders and was canon at St。 John Lateran； and besides him； elegant Latinists were now common enough among the prelates。 In this matter； as in others； the exaggerated privileges of the profane humanists appear lessened in the sixteenth century on which point we shall presently speak more fully。
What now was the subject and general character of these speeches？ The national gift of eloquence was not wanting to the Italians of the Middle Ages； and a so…called 'rhetoric' belonged from the first to the seven liberal arts； but so far as the revival of the ancient methods is concerned； this merit must be ascribed； according to Filippo Villani； to the Florentine Bruno Casini； who died of the plague in 1348。 With the practical purpose of fitting his countrymen to speak with ease and effect in public； he treated； after the pattern of the ancients； invention； declamation； bearing； and gesticulation； each in its proper connection。 Elsewhere too we read of an oratorical training directed solely to practical application。 No accomplishment was more highly esteemed than the power of elegant improvisation in Latin。 The growing study of Cicero's speeches and theoretical writings； of Quintilian and of the imperial panegyrists； the appearance of new and original treatises； the general progress of antiquarian learning； and the stores of ancient matter and thought which now could and must be drawn from； all combined to shape the character of the new eloquence。
This character nevertheless differed widely according to the individual。 Many speeches breathe a spirit of true eloquence； especially those which keep to the matter treated of； of this kind is the mass of what is left to us of Pius II。 The miraculous effects produced by Giannozzo Manetti point to an orator the like of whom has not been often seen。 His great audiences as envoy before Nicholas V and before the Doge and Council of Venice were events not to be soon forgotten。 Many orators； on the contrary； would seize the opportunity； not only to flatter the vanity of distinguished hearers； but to load their speeches with an enormous mass of antiquarian rubbish。 How it was possible to endure this infliction for two and even three hours； can only be understood when we take into account the intense interest then felt in everything connected with antiquity； and the rarity and defectiveness of treatises on the subject at a time when printing was but little diffused。 Such orations had at least the value which we have claimed for many of Petrarch's letters。 But some speakers went too far。 Most of Filelfo's speeches are an atrocious patchwork of classical and biblical quotations； tacked on to a string of commonplaces； among which the great people he wishes to flatter are arranged under the head of