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It is certain that these doctrines only worked upon Italy through Germany； and this not till the power of Spain was sufficiently great to root them out without difficulty； partly by itself and partly by means of the Papacy； and its instruments。105 Nevertheless； in the earlier religious movements of Italy； from the Mystics of the thirteenth century down to Savonarola； there was a large amount of positive religious doctrine which； like the very definite Christianity of the Huguenots； failed to achieve success only because circumstances were against it。 Mighty events like the Reformation elude； as respects their details； their outbreak and their development； the deductions of the philosophers； however clearly the necessity of them as a whole may be demonstrated。 The movements of the human spirit； its sudden flashes； its expansions and its pauses； must for ever remain a mystery to our eyes； since we can but know this or that of the forces at work in it； never all of them together。
The feeling of the upper and middle classes in Italy with regard to the Church at the time when the Renaissance culminated； was compounded of deep and contemptuous aversion； of acquiescence in the outward ecclesiastical customs which entered into daily life； and of a sense of dependence on sacraments and ceremonies。 The great personal influence of religious preachers may be added as a fact characteristic of Italy。
That hostility to the hierarchy； which displays itself more especially from the time of Dante onwards in Italian literature and history； has been fully treated by several writers。 We have already said something of the attitude of public opinion with regard to the Papacy。 Those who wish for the strongest evidence which the best authorities offer us； can find it in the famous passages of Machiavelli's 'Discorsi；' and in the unmutilated edition of Guicciardini。 Outside the Roman Curia； some respect seems to have been felt for the best men among the bishops； and for many of the parochial clergy。 On the other hand； the mere holders of benefices； the canons and the monks were held in almost universal suspicion； and were often the objects of the most scandalous aspersions； extending to the whole of their order。
It has been said that the monks were made the scapegoats for the whole clergy； for the reason that none but they could be ridiculed without danger。 But this is certainly incorrect。 They are introduced so frequently in the novels and comedies； because these forms of literature need fixed and well…known types where the imagination of the reader can easily fill up an outline。 Besides which； the novelists do not as a fact spare the secular clergy。 In the third place； we have abundant proof in the rest of Italian literature that men could speak boldly enough about the Papacy and the Court of Rome。 In works of imagination we cannot expect to find criticism of this kind。 Fourthly； the monks； when attacked； were sometimes able to take a terrible vengeance。
It is nevertheless true that the monks were the most unpopular class of all； and that they were reckoned a living proof of the worthlessness of conventual life； of the whole ecclesiastical organization； of the system of dogma； and of religion altogether； according as men pleased； rightly or wrongly； to draw their conclusions。 We may also assume that Italy retained a clearer recollection of the origin of the two great mendicant orders than other countries； and had not forgotten that they were the chief agents in the reaction against what is called the heresy of the thirteenth century； that is to say； against an unruly and vigorous movement of the modern Italian spirit。 And that spiritual police which was permanently entrusted to the Dominicans certainly never excited any other feeling than secret hatred and contempt。
After reading the 'Decameron' and the novels of Franco Sacchetti； we might imagine that the vocabulary of abuse directed at the monks and nuns was exhausted。 But towards the time of the Reformation this abuse became still fiercer。 To say nothing of Aretino； who in the 'Ragionamenti' uses conventual life merely as a pretext for giving free play to his own poisonous nature； we may quote one author as typical of the restMasuccio； in the first ten of his fifty novels。 They are written in a tone of the deepest indignation； and with the purpose to make this indignation general； and are dedicated to men in the highest position； such as King Ferrante and Prince Alfonso of Naples。 The stories are many of them old； and some of them familiar to readers of Boccaccio。 But others reject； with a frightful realism； the actual state of things at Naples。 The way in which the priests befool and plunder the people by means of spurious miracles； added to their own scandalous lives； is enough to drive any thoughtful observer to despair。 We read of the Minorite friars who travelled to collect alms： 'They cheat； steal； and fornicate； and when they are at the end of their resources； they set up as saints and work miracles； one displaying the cloak of St。 Vincent； another the handwriting of St。 Bernardino； a third the bridle of Capistrano's donkey。' Others 'bring with them confederates who pretend to be blind or afflicted with some mortal disease； and after touching the hem of the monk's cowl； or the relics which he carries； are healed before the eyes of the multitude。 All then shout 〃Misericordia；〃 the bells are rung； and the miracle is recorded in a solemn protocol。' Or else the monk in the pulpit is denounced as a liar by another who stands below among the audience； the accuser is immediately possessed by the devil； and then healed by the preacher。 The whole thing was a prearranged comedy； in which； however； the principal with his assistant made so much money that he was able to buy a bishopric from a Cardinal； on which the two confederates lived comfortably to the end of their days。 Masuccio makes no great distinction between Franciscans and Dominicans； finding the one worth as much as the other。 'And yet the foolish people lets itself be drawn into their hatreds and divisions； and quarrels about them in public places； and calls itself 〃franceschino〃 or 〃domenichino。〃 ' The nuns are the exclusive property of the monks。 Those of the former who have anything to do with the laity； are prosecuted and put in prison； while others are wedded in due form to the monks； with the accompaniments of mass； a marriage…contract； and a liberal indulgence in food and wine。 'I myself；' says the author； 'have been there not once； but several times； and seen it all with my own eyes。 The nuns afterwards bring forth pretty little monks or else use means to hinder that result。 And if anyone charges me with falsehood； let him search the nunneries well； and he will find there as many little bores as in Bethlehem at Herod's time。' These things； and the like； are among the secrets of monastic life。 The monks are by no means too strict with one another in the confessional； and impose a Paternoster in cases where they would refuse all absolution to a layman as if he were a heretic。 'Therefore may the earth open and swallow up th