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Now the method which was almost exclusively employed until Bacon's
time is commonly called the deductive method； that is； some
principle or premise was assumed to be true； and reasoning was made
from this assumption。 No especial fault was found with the
reasoning of the great masters of logic like Aristotle and Thomas
Aquinas； for it never has been surpassed in acuteness and severity。
If their premises were admitted； their conclusions would follow as
a certainty。 What was wanted was to establish the truth of
premises； or general propositions。 This Bacon affirmed could be
arrived at only by induction； that is； the ascending from
ascertained individual facts to general principles； by extending
what is true of particulars to the whole class in which they
belong。 Bacon has been called the father of inductive science；
since he would employ the inductive method。 Yet he is not truly
the father of induction； since it is as old as the beginnings of
science。 Hippocrates； when he ridiculed the quacks of his day； and
collected the facts and phenomena of disease； and inferred from
them the proper treatment of it； was as much the father of
induction as Bacon himself。 The error the ancients made was in not
collecting a sufficient number of facts to warrant a sound
induction。 And the ancients looked out for facts to support some
preconceived theory； from which they reasoned syllogistically。 The
theory could not be substantiated by any syllogistic reasonings；
since conclusions could never go beyond assumptions； if the
assumptions were wrong； no ingenious or elaborate reasoning would
avail anything towards the discovery of truth； but could only
uphold what was assumed。 This applied to theology as well as to
science。 In the Dark Ages it was well for the teachers of mankind
to uphold the dogmas of the Church； which they did with masterly
dialectical skill。 Those were ages of Faith； and not of Inquiry。
It was all…important to ground believers in a firm faith of the
dogmas which were deemed necessary to support the church and the
cause of religion。 They were regarded as absolute certainties。
There was no dispute about the premises of the scholastic's
arguments； and hence his dialectics strengthened the mind by the
exercise of logical sports； and at the same time confirmed the
faith。
The world never saw a more complete system of dogmatic theology
than that elaborated by Thomas Aquinas。 When the knowledge of the
Greek and Hebrew was rare and imperfect； and it was impossible to
throw light by means of learning and science on the texts of
Scripture； it was well to follow the interpretation of such a great
light as Augustine； and assume his dogmas as certainties； since
they could not then be controverted； and thus from them construct a
system of belief which would confirm the faith。 But Aquinas； with
his Aristotelian method of syllogism and definitions； could not go
beyond Augustine。 Augustine was the fountain； and the water that
flowed from it in ten thousand channels could not rise above the
spring； and as everybody appealed to and believed in Saint
Augustine； it was well to construct a system from him to confute
the heretical； and which the heretical would respect。 The
scholastic philosophy which some ridicule； in spite of its
puerilities and sophistries and syllogisms； preserved the theology
of the Middle Ages； perhaps of the Fathers。 It was a mighty
bulwark of the faith which was then accepted。 No honors could be
conferred on its great architects that were deemed extravagant。
The Pope and the clergy saw in Thomas Aquinas the great defender of
the Church；not of its abuses； but of its doctrines。 And if no
new light can be shed on the Scripture text from which assumptions
were made； if these assumptions cannot be assailed； if they are
certitudes；then we can scarcely have better text…books than those
furnished to the theologians of the Middle Ages； for no modern
dialetician can excel them in severity of logic。 The great object
of modern theologians should be to establish the authenticity and
meaning of the Scripture texts on which their assumptions rest； and
this can be done only by the method which Bacon laid down； which is
virtually a collation and collection of facts；that is； divine
declarations。 Establish the meaning of these without question； and
we have principia from which we may deduce creeds and systems； the
usefulness of which cannot be exaggerated； especially in an age of
agnosticism。 Having fundamental principles which cannot be
gainsaid； we may philosophically draw deductions。 Bacon did not
make war on deduction； when its fundamental truths are established。
Deduction is as much a necessary part of philosophy as induction：
it is the peculiarity of the Scotch metaphysicians； who have ever
deduced truths from those previously established。 Deduction even
enters into modern science as well as induction。 When Cuvier
deduced from a bone the form and habits of the mastodon； when
Kepler deduced his great laws； all from the primary thought that
there must be some numerical or geographical relation between the
times； distances； and velocities of the revolving bodies of the
solar system； when Newton deduced； as is said； the principle of
gravitation from the fall of an apple； when Leverrier sought for a
new planet from the perturbations of the heavenly bodies in their
orbits；we feel that deduction is as much a legitimate process as
induction itself。
But deductive logic is the creation of Aristotle； and it was the
authority of Aristotle that Bacon sought to subvert。 The inductive
process is also old； of which Bacon is called the father。 How are
these things to be reconciled and explained？ Wherein and how did
Bacon adapt his method to the discovery of truth； which was his
principal aim；that method which is the great cause of modern
progress in science； the way to it being indicated by him pre…
eminently？
The whole thing consists in this； that Bacon pointed out the right
road to truth；as a board where two roads meet or diverge
indicates the one which is to be followed。 He did not make a
system； like Descartes or Spinoza or Newton： he showed the way to
make it on sound principles。 〃He laid down a systematic analysis
and arrangement of inductive evidence。〃 The syllogism； the great
instrument used by Aristotle and the Schoolmen； 〃is； from its very
nature； incompetent to prove the ultimate premises from which it
proceeds； and when the truth of these remains doubtful； we can
place no confidence in the conclusions drawn from them。〃 Hence；
the first step in the reform of science is to review its ultimate
principles； and the first condition of a scientific method is that
it shall be competent to conduct such an inquiry； and this method
is applicable； not to physical science merely； but to the whole
realm of knowledge。 This； of course； includes poetry； art；
intellectual philosophy； and theology；