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servant。 Only so can he be a 〃strong man〃； only in so far as； by
fortunate bent or by its absence； he is enabled to move
resistlessly with the parallelogram of forces。
The exigencies of a businesslike administration demand that
there be no division of powers between the academic executive and
the academic staff； but the exigencies of the higher learning
require that the scholars and scientists must be left quite free
to follow their own bent in conducting their own work。 In the
nature of things this work cannot be carried on effectually under
coercive rule。 Scientific inquiry can not be pursued under
direction of a layman in the person of a superior officer。 Also；
learning is； in the nature of things； not a competitive business
and can make no use of finesse； diplomatic equivocation and
tactful regard for popular prejudices； such as are of the essence
of the case in competitive business。 It is； also； of no advantage
to learning to engross the trade。 Tradition and present necessity
alike demand that the body of scholars and scientists who make up
the university must be vested with full powers of self…direction；
without ulterior consideration。 A university can remain a
corporation of learning； de facto； on no other basis。
As has already been remarked； business methods of course have
their place in the corporation's fiscal affairs and in the
office…work incident to the care of its material equipment。 As
regards these items the university is a business concern； and no
discussion of these topics would be in place here。 These things
concern the university only in its externals； and they do not
properly fall within the scope of academic policy or academic
administration。 They come into consideration here only in so far
as a lively regard for them may； as it sometimes does； divert the
forces of the establishment from its ostensible purpose。
Under the rule imposed by those businesslike preconceptions
that decide his selection for office； the first duty of the
executive head is to see to the organization of an administrative
machinery for the direction of the university's internal affairs；
and the establishment of a facile and rigorous system of
accountancy for the control and exhibition of the academic work。
In the same measure in which such a system goes into effect the
principles of competitive business will permeate the
administration in all directions； in the personnel of the
academic staff； in the control and intercourse of teachers and
students； in the schedule of instruction； in the disposition of
the material equipment； in the public exhibits and ceremonial of
the university； as well as in its pecuniary concerns。
Within the range of academic interests proper； these business
principles primarily affect the personnel and the routine of
instruction。 Here their application immediately results in an
administrative system of bureaux or departments； a hierarchical
gradation of the members of the staff； and a rigorous parcelment
and standardization of the instruction offered。 Some such system
is indispensable to any effective control of the work from above；
such as is aimed at in the appointment of a discretionary head of
the university； particularly in a large school； and the
measure of control desired will decide the degree of thoroughness
with which this bureaucratic organization is to be carried
through。 The need of a well…devised bureaucratic system is
greater the more centralized and coercive the control to which
the academic work is to be subject； and the degree of control to
be exercised will be greater the more urgent the felt need of a
strict and large accountancy may be。 All of which resolves itself
into a question as to the purposes sought by the installation of
such a system。
For the everyday work of the higher learning； as such； little
of a hierarchical gradation； and less of bureaucratic
subordination； is needful or serviceable； and very little of
statistical uniformity； standard units of erudition； or detail
accountancy； is at all feasible。 This work is not of a mechanical
character and does not lend itself； either in its methods or its
results； to any mechanically standardized scheme of measurements
or to a system of accounting per cent per time unit。 This range
of instruction consists substantially in the facilitation of
scholarly and scientific habits of thought； and the imposition of
any appreciable measure of such standardization and accounting
must unavoidably weaken and vitiate the work of instruction； in
just the degree in which the imposed system is effective。
It is not within the purpose of this inquiry to go into the
bearing of all this on the collegiate （undergraduate） departments
or on the professional and technical schools associated with the
university proper in American practice。 But something of a
detailed discussion of the system and principles of control
applied in these schools is necessary because of its incidental
bearing on graduate work。
It is plain beyond need of specification that in the
practical view of the public at large； and of the governing
boards； the university is primarily an undergraduate school； with
graduate and professional departments added to it。 And it is
similarly plain that the captains of erudition chosen as
executive heads share the same preconceptions； and go to their
work with a view primarily to the needs of their undergraduate
departments。 The businesslike order and system introduced into
the universities； therefore； are designed primarily to meet the
needs and exploit the possibilities of the undergraduate school；
but； by force of habit； by a desire of uniformity； by a desire to
control and exhibit the personnel and their work； by heedless
imitation； or what not； it invariably happens that the same
scheme of order and system is extended to cover the graduate work
also。
While it is the work of science and scholarship； roughly what
is known in American usage as graduate work； that gives the
university its rank as a seat of learning and keeps it in
countenance as such with laymen and scholars； it is the
undergraduate school； or college； that still continues to be the
larger fact； and that still engages the greater and more
immediate attention in university management。 This is due in part
to received American usage； in part to its more readily serving
the ends of competitive ambition； and it is a fact in the current
academic situation which must be counted in as a chronic
discrepancy； not to be got clear of or t