the origin of the distinction of ranks-第53章

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　conduct　with　relation　to　the　villains　in　their　own　possession。　These　being　appropriated　to　pious　uses；　and　being　only　held　in　usufruct；　were　not　to　be　alienated　by　the　present　incumbent。　Thus　we　meet　with　many　ecclesiastical　regulations；　both　in　France　and　Germany；　by　which　it　is　provided　that　no　bishop；　or　priest；　shall　manumit　a　slave　in　the　patrimony　of　the　church；　without　purchasing　two　others　of　equal　value　to　be　put　in　his　place。（14*）　　　　　The　state　of　the　civil　government；　in　most　of　the　countries　of　Europe；　may　be　regarded　as　another　circumstance　which　had　some　influence　in　abolishing　domestic　slavery。　From　the　aristocratical　constitution　established　in　these　kingdoms；　the　sovereign　was　engaged　in　long　and　violent　struggles　with　his　barons；　and　being　often　incapable　of　carrying　his　measures　by　direct　force；　he　was　obliged　to　employ　every　artifice　that　his　situation　would　admit；　in　order　to　humble　his　rivals；　and　reduce　them　under　subjection。　For　this　purpose　he　frequently　exerted　his　authority　in　protecting　the　villains　from　the　tyranny　of　the　master；　and　thus　endeavoured　to　undermine　the　power　of　the　nobles；　by　withdrawing　the　submission　of　their　immediate　dependents。　　　　　While　the　monarch　was；　upon　this　account；　endeavouring　to　protect　the　villains　possessed　by　his　barons；　and　to　raise　them　to　such　a　condition　as　might　render　them　less　dependent　upon　their　masters；　he　found　means　of　deriving　some　revenue　from　the　people　of　that　class；　upon　pretence　of　confirming；　by　royal　authority；　the　privileges　that　were　bestowed　upon　them。　Other　reasons；　in　the　mean　time；　induced　the　sovereign　to　give　particular　encouragement　to　the　bond…men　upon　his　own　demesnes；　as　these；　under　the　shelter　of　the　crown；　had　been　enabled　to　acquire　a　degree　of　opulence；　not　only　by　their　advances　in　agriculture；　but　also　by　their　application　to　trade　and　manufactures；　and　consequently　were　in　a　condition　to　purchase　freedom　and　immunities　by　pecuniary　compositions；　or　by　submitting　to　regular　duties　for　the　support　of　government。　From　such　political　considerations；　we　find　that　repeated　efforts　were　made；　and　many　regulations　were　introduced　by　different　princes　of　Europe；　for　extending　and　securing　the　liberties　and　rights　of　the　lower　and　more　industrious　part　of　their　subjects。　　　　　In　this　manner　domestic　slavery；　having　gradually　declined　for　ages；　has　at　last　been　exploded　from　the　greater　part　of　Europe。　In　several　European　kingdoms；　this　has　happened；　from　the　natural　progress　of　manners；　and　without　any　express　interposition　of　the　legislature。　Thus　in　England；　the　peasants　having；　in　consequence　of　their　situation；　acquired　successive　privileges；　many　of　them　were　promoted　to　the　rank　of　vassals　or　free…holders；　while　the　rest；　advancing　more　slowly；　have　remained　in　the　condition　of　those　who　are　called　copy…holders　at　present。　So　late　as　the　reign　of　Queen　Elizabeth　it　appears　that　real　bond…men　were　still　to　be　found　in　many　parts　of　the　kingdom。（15*）　　　　　In　Scotland　the　slavery　of　the　villains；　which　was　probably　of　a　similar　nature　to　what　obtained　in　the　other　countries　of　Europe；　appear　in　like　manner　to　have　gone　into　disuse　without　any　aid　of　statute；　but　the　period　when　this　change　was　effected　has　not　been　ascertained　by　lawyers　or　historians。　　　　　The　remains　of　bondage　which　are　still　to　be　found　in　the　case　of　colliers　and　salters　in　Scotland；　and　of　those　who　work　in　the　mines　in　some　other　parts　of　Europe；　are　sufficient　to　point　out　the　chief　circumstance；　from　which；　in　all　other　cases；　the　ancient　institution　has　been　so　generally　abolished。　In　a　coal…work；　as　the　different　workmen　are　collected　in　one　place；　instead　of　being　scattered；　like　the　ordinary　peasants；　over　an　extensive　territory；　they　were　capable　of　being　put　under　the　care　of　an　overseer；　who　might　compel　them　to　labour；　and　the　master　did　not　so　immediately　feel　the　necessity　of　resigning　that　authority　over　them　with　which　he　was　invested。　　　　　After　domestic　liberty　had　been　thus；　in　a　great　measure；　established　in　those　European　nations　which　had　made　the　greatest　improvement　in　agriculture；　America　was　discovered；　the　first　settlers　in　which；　from　their　distance；　and　from　the　little　attention　that　was　paid　to　them　by　the　government　of　their　mother　countries；　were　under　no　necessity　of　conforming　to　the　laws　and　custom　of　Europe。　The　acquisition　of　gold　and　silver　was　the　great　object　by　which　the　Spaniards　were　directed　in　their　settlements　upon　that　continent；　and　the　native　inhabitants；　whom　they　had　conquered；　were　reduced　into　slavery　and　put　to　work　in　the　mines。　But；　these　being　either　exhausted　by　the　severity　with　which　they　were　treated；　or　not　being　thought　sufficiently　robust　for　that　kind　of　labour；　negro…slaves　were　afterwards　purchased　for　this　purpose　from　the　Portuguese　settlements　on　the　coast　of　Africa。　When　sugar…plantations　were　erected；　the　same　people　were　employed　in　these；　and　in　most　other　kinds　of　work　which　came　to　be　performed　in　that　part　of　the　world。　Thus　the　practice　of　slavery　was　no　sooner　extinguished　by　the　inhabitants　in　one　quarter　of　the　globe；　than　it　was　revived　by　the　very　same　people　in　another；　where　it　has　remained　ever　since；　without　being　much　regarded　by　the　public；　or　exciting　any　effectual　regulations　in　order　to　suppress　it。（16*）　　　　　It　merits　particular　attention；　that　the　chief　circumstance　which　contributed　to　procure　freedom　to　the　slaves　in　Europe；　had　no　place　in　our　American　plantations。　From　the　manner　of　working　the　mines；　a　number　of　slaves　are　usually　collected　together；　and　may　therefore　be　placed　under　the　command　of　a　single　person；　who　has　it　in　his　power　to　superintend　their　behaviour；　and　to　punish　their　negligence。　The　same　observation　is　applicable　to　the　planting　of　sugar；　and　to　the　other　occupations　in　our　colonies；　in　which　the　negroes　perform　the　same　sort　of　work　which　in　Europe　is　commonly　performed　by　cattle；　and　in　which；　of　consequence；　many　servants　are　kept　upon　the　same　plantation。　As　the　slaves　are　continually　under　the　lash　of　their　master；　he　has　not　been　forced　to　use　the　disagreeable　expedient　of　rewarding　their　labour；　and　of　improving　their　condition　by　those　means　which　were　found　so　necessary；　and　which　were　employed　with　so　much　emolument；　to　encourage　the　industry　of　the　peasants　in　Europe。　Section　IV　Political　consequences　of　slavery　　　　　In　the　history　of　mankind；　there　is　no　revolution　of　greater　importance　to　the　happiness　of　society　than　this　which　we　have　now　had　occasion　to　contemplate。　The　laws　and　customs　of　the　modern　European　nations　have　carried　the　advantages　of　liberty　to　a　height　which　was　never　known　in　any　other　age　or　country。　In　the　ancient　states；　so　celebrated　upon　account　of　their　free　government；　the　bulk　of　their　mechanics　and　labouring　people　were　denied　the　common　privileges　of　men；　and　treated　upon　the　footing　of　inferior　animals。　In　proportion　to　the　opulence　and　refinement　of　those　nations；　the　number　of　their　slaves　was　increased；　and　the　grievances　to　which　they　were　subjected　became　the　more　intolerable。　　　　　The　citizens　of　Athens；　according　to　an　enumeration　of　Demetrius　Phalerius；　are　said　to　have　amounted　to　21；000；　the　stranger