the origin of the distinction of ranks-第51章

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n　which　he　exercised　over　their　lives　was　at　length　entirely　lost　by　disuse。　　　　　When　a　slave　had　been　for　a　long　time　engaged　in　a　particular　farm；　and　had　become　acquainted　with　that　particular　culture　which　it　required；　he　was　so　much　the　better　qualified　to　continue　in　the　management　of　it　for　the　future；　and　it　was　contrary　to　the　interest　of　the　master　that　he　should　be　removed　to　another　place；　or　employed　in　labour　of　a　different　kind。　By　degrees；　therefore；　the　peasants　were　regarded　as　belonging　to　the　stock　upon　the　ground；　and　came　to　be　uniformly　disposed　of　as　a　part　of　the　estate　which　they　had　been　accustomed　to　cultivate。　　　　　As　these　changes　were　gradual；　it　is　difficult　to　ascertain　the　precise　period　at　which　they　were　completed。　The　continual　disorders　which　prevailed　in　the　western　part　of　Europe；　for　ages　after　it　was　first　over…run　by　the　German　nations；　prevented　for　a　long　time　the　progress　of　arts　among　the　new　inhabitants。　It　was　about　the　twelfth　century　that　a　spirit　of　improvement；　in　several　European　countries；　became　somewhat　conspicuous；　and　it　may　be　considered　as　a　mark　of　that　improvement；　with　respect　to　agriculture；　that　about　this　time；　the　villains　had　obtained　considerable　privileges；　that　the　master's　power　over　their　life　was　then　understood　to　be　extinguished；　that　the　chastisement　to　which　they　had　been　formerly　subjected　was　become　more　moderate；　and　that　they　were　generally　permitted　to　acquire　separate　property。（10*）　　　　　The　effect　of　the　foregoing　circumstances　is　even　observable　in　the　history　of　the　Greek　and　Romans；　among　whom　the　peasants　were　raised　to　a　better　condition　than　the　rest　of　their　slaves。　They　were　indeed　bound　to　serve　the　proprietor　during　life；　and　might　have　been　sold　along　with　the　ground　upon　which　they　were　employed；　but　their　persons　were　not　subject　to　the　absolute　jurisdiction　of　their　master；　they　had　the　privilege　of　marrying　without　his　consent；　they　received　wages　in　return　for　their　labour；　and　were　understood　to　have　a　full　right　of　property　in　whatever　goods　their　industry　had　enabled　them　to　accumulate。　　　　　It　should　seem；　however；　that　the　limited　territory　possessed　by　these　ancient　nations　prevented　the　farther　extension　of　the　privileges　bestowed　upon　their　peasants：　seven　acres　were　originally　the　utmost　extent　of　landed　property　which　a　Roman　citizen　was　permitted　to　enjoy；　a　portion　which　he　was　able　to　cultivate　with　his　own　hands；　or　with　no　other　assistance　but　that　of　his　own　family；　and　there　is　reason　to　believe　that；　for　several　centuries；　no　individual　acquired　such　an　estate　as　gave　occasion　to　his　retaining　many　servants　for　the　management　of　it；　or　could　render　the　inspection　and　government　of　those　whom　he　employed　a　matter　of　great　trouble　or　difficulty。（11*）　　　　　But　after　the　wide　and　populous　countries　under　the　Roman　dominion　were　subdued　and　laid　waste　by　the　small　tribes　of　the　Germans；　very　extensive　landed　estates；　together　with　an　adequate　number　of　slaves；　were　immediately　acquired　by　particular　persons。　As　the　people　retained　their　primitive　simplicity　of　manners；　and　were　in　a　great　measure　strangers　to　commerce；　these　large　possessions　remained　for　ages　without　being　dismembered。　And　thus；　during　all　the　successive　improvements　of　agriculture；　the　proprietor　of　an　estate；　embarrassed　with　the　multitude　of　his　villains；　was　obliged　to　repose　a　confidence　in　them；　and　came　by　degrees　to　discover　more　clearly　the　utility　of　exciting　them　to　industry　by　the　prospect　of　their　own　private　advantage。　　　　　The　same　motives；　by　which　the　master　was　induced　to　reward　his　slaves　for　their　labour；　deterred　him　afterwards　to　increase　his　bounty　in　proportion　to　the　work　which　they　performed。　Having　no　opportunity　of　looking　narrowly　into　their　management；　he　was　commonly　led　to　estimate　their　diligence　according　to　their　success；　and　therefore；　when　they　brought　him　a　good　crop；　he　made　an　addition　to　their　wages；　at　the　same　time　that　he　allowed　them　to　expect　a　suitable　compensation　for　their　future　labour　and　economy。　This　at　length　gave　rise　to　an　express　stipulation；　that　their　profits　should　depend　upon　the　fertility　of　their　different　farm；　and　that；　in　all　cases；　they　should　be　permitted　to　retain　a　certain　share　of　the　produce；　in　consideration　of　their　labour。　　　　　An　expedient　so　obvious　and　well　calculated　for　promoting　the　industry　of　the　peasants；　could　hardly　fail　to　be　generally　embraced　in　all　the　countries　of　Europe；　as　soon　as　the　inhabitants　became　attentive　to　the　improvement　of　their　estates。　The　remains　of　this　practice　are　still　to　be　found　in　Scotland；　where；　in　some　cases；　the　landlord　is　accustomed　to　stock　the　farm；　and　the　tenant　pays　him　a　rent　in　kind；　consisting　of　a　certain　proportion　of　the　fruits。（12*）　　　　　By　this　alteration；　the　villains　entered　into　a　sort　of　co…partnership　with　their　master；　and　having　always　a　prospect　of　gain；　according　to　the　vigour　or　talents　which　they　exerted；　they　were　enabled　to　earn　a　more　comfortable　subsistence；　and　were　even　gradually　raised　to　affluence。　The　acquisition　of　wealth　paved　the　way　to　a　farther　extension　of　their　privileges。　Those　who　had　obtained　something　considerable　found　themselves　in　a　condition　to　stock　their　own　farms；　and　to　offer　a　fixed　rent　to　the　master；　upon　condition　of　their　being　allowed　to　retain　the　surplus　for　their　own　emolument。　An　agreement　of　this　kind；　so　advantageous　to　both　parties；　was　concluded　without　any　difficulty。　As　the　tenant　secured　to　himself　the　whole　profit　arising　from　his　industry；　the　landlord　was　freed　from　the　hazard　of　accidental　losses；　and　obtained　not　only　a　certain；　but　frequently　an　additional　revenue　from　his　lands。　　　　　Thus；　by　degrees；　the　ancient　villanage　came　to　be　entirely　abolished。　The　peasants；　who　cultivated　their　farms　at　their　own　charges；　and　at　their　own　hazard；　were　of　course　emancipated　from　the　authority　of　their　master；　and　could　no　longer　be　regarded　as　in　the　condition　of　servants。　Their　personal　subjection　was　at　an　end。　It　was　of　no　consequence　to　the　landlord　how　they　conducted　themselves；　and；　provided　they　punctually　paid　his　rent；　nothing　farther　could　be　required　of　them。　There　was　no　reason　to　insist　that　they　should　remain　in　the　farm　longer　than　they　pleased；　for　the　profits　it　afforded　made　them；　commonly；　not　more　willing　to　leave　it　than　the　proprietor　was　to　put　them　away。　When　agriculture　became　so　beneficial　a　trade；when　the　state　of　those　who　followed　that　profession　had　been　rendered　so　comfortable；　no　person　had　any　difficulty　to　procure　a　sufficient　number　of　tenants　to　labour　his　estate。　It　was；　on　the　contrary；　sometimes　difficult　for　the　farmer　to　obtain　land　sufficient　for　the　exercise　of　his　employment；　and；　after　he　had　been　at　pains　to　improve　the　soil；　he　was　in　danger　of　being　dispossessed　by　the　proprietor；　before　he　was　indemnified　for　the　trouble　and　expense　which　he　had　sustained。　This　made　it　necessary　to　stipulate　that　he　should　be　allowed　to　remain　for　a　certain　time　in　the　possession；　and　gave　rise　to　leases；　for　a　term　of　years；　and　even　sometimes　for　life；　or　for　a　longer　period；　according　to　the　circumstances　or　inclination　of　the　parties。