the origin of the distinction of ranks-第39章

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　from　the　nature　of　the　feudal　connexion；　he　in　some　cases　incurred　a　forfeiture；　or　total　loss　of　the　fief；　and　in　others　was　liable　for　the　payment　of　certain　duties；　which　produced　an　occasional　profit　to　the　superior。　　　　　1。　Thus　when　the　vassal　died　without　heirs；　when　he　violated　his　duty　by　the　commission　of　a　crime；　or　by　neglecting　to　perform　the　usual　service；　in　either　of　these　cases　his　lands　returned　to　the　superior。　The　emolument　arising　from　this　forfeiture；　or　termination　of　the　fief；　was　called　an　escheat。　　　　　2。　When　a　person　was　admitted　to　hold　a　fief；　he　engaged　by　an　oath　to　fulfil　the　duties　of　homage　and　fealty　to　the　superior。　Even　after　fief　became　hereditary；　this　ceremony　was　repeated　upon　every　transmission　of　the　feudal　right　by　succession；　so　that　while　the　heir　of　a　vassal　neglected　to　renew　the　engagement；　he　was　not　intitled　to　obtain　possession；　and　the　superior；　in　the　mean　time；　drew　the　rent　of　the　lands。　Hence　the　incident　of　non…entry。　　　　　3。　Though　the　heir　of　a　vassal　might　claim　a　renewal　of　the　feudal　investiture；　this　was　understood　to　be　granted　in　consideration　of　his　performing　military　service。　When　by　his　nonage；　therefore；　the　heir　was　incapable　of　fulfilling　that　condition；　the　superior　himself　retained　the　possession　of　the　lands；　at　the　same　time　that　he　was　accustomed；　in　that　case；　to　protect　and　maintain　his　future　vassal。　This　produced　the　incident　of　wardship。　　　　　4。　Upon　the　death　of　a　vassal；　it　was　usual　for　the　representative　of　his　family　to　make　a　present　to　the　superior；　in　order　to　obtain　a　ready　admittance　into　the　possession　of　the　lands。　When　fiefs　became　hereditary；　it　was　still　found　expedient　to　procure　by　means　of　a　bribe；　what　could　not　easily　be　extorted　by　force；　and　the　original　arbitrary　payment　was　converted　into　a　regular　duty；　under　the　name　of　relief。　　　　　5。　From　the　original　nature　of　the　feudal　grants；　the　vassal　could　have　no　title　to　sell；　or　give　away　to　any　other　person；　the　lands　which　he　held　merely　as　a　tenant；　in　consideration　of　the　service　which　he　was　bound　to　perform。　But　when　fiefs　had　been　granted　to　heirs；　and　when　of　consequence　the　right　of　the　vassal　approached　somewhat　nearer　to　that　of　property；　it　became　customary　to　compound　with　the　superior　for　the　privilege　of　alienating　the　estate；　upon　payment　of　a　sum　of　money。　This　gave　rise　to　a　perquisite；　called　the　fine　of　alienation。　　　　　6。　From　the　disorders　which　prevailed　in　the　feudal　times；　when　different　families　were　so　frequently　at　war；　it　was　of　great　consequence　that　the　vassals　should　not　contract　an　alliance　with　the　enemy　of　their　Liege　Lord；　which　might　have　a　tendency　to　corrupt　their　fidelity。　When　fiefs　therefore　came　to　be　granted　for　life；　or　to　heirs；　it　was　still　held　a　sufficient　ground　of　forfeiture　that　the　vassal　married　without　the　superior's　consent。　This　forfeiture　was　afterwards　converted　into　a　pecuniary　penalty；　called　the　incident　of　marriage。　　　　　7。　According　to　the　usual　policy　of　the　feudal　nations；　the　superior　levied　no　taxes　from　his　retainers；　but　was　maintained　from　the　rent　of　his　own　estate。　In　particular　cases　however；　when　his　ordinary　revenue　was　insufficient；　his　vassals　were　accustomed　to　supply　him　by　a　voluntary　contribution。　When　fiefs　were　precarious；　what　was　given　on　those　occasions　depended　upon　the　will　of　the　superior；　who　might　even　seize　upon　the　whole　estate　of　his　tenants。　But　when　the　vassal　had　obtained　a　more　permanent　right；　it　became　necessary　to　settle　the　cases　when　those　contributions　were　to　be　made；　as　well　as　the　quantity　that　might　be　demanded；　and　in　this　manner；　aid　or　benevolence　came　to　be　enumerated　among　the　duties　payable　to　a　superior。　　　　　The　conversion　of　allodial　into　feudal　property；　by　a　voluntary　resignation；　as　it　proceeded　from　the　general　manners　and　situation　of　the　people；　continued　to　be　a　frequent　practice；　while　those　manners　and　that　situation　remained。　The　smaller　barons　were　thus；　at　different　times；　subjected　to　their　opulent　neighbours；　the　number　of　independent　proprietors　was　gradually　diminished；　their　estates　were　united　and　blended　together　in　one　barony；　and　large　districts　were　brought　under　the　dominion　of　a　few　great　lords；　who　daily　extended　their　influence　and　authority；　by　increasing　the　number　of　their　vassals。　　　　　These　changes；　by　exalting　a　small　part　of　the　nobility　over　the　great　body　of　the　people；　had；　for　some　time；　a　tendency　to　abridge；　instead　of　enlarging　the　power　of　the　crown；　and　to　render　the　government　more　aristocratical。　Whenever　an　independent　proprietor　had　resigned　his　allodial　property；　and　agreed　to　hold　his　land　by　a　feudal　tenure；　he　was　no　longer　entitled　to　a　voice　in　the　national　assembly；　but　was　bound　to　follow　the　direction　of　the　person　to　whom　he　had　become　liable　in　homage　and　fealty。　This　appears　to　be　the　reason　of　what　is　observed　in　France；　that　the　national　assembly　was　originally　much　more　numerous　than　it　came　to　be　afterwards；　when　its　constituent　members　were　all　persons　of　high　rank　and　great　opulence。（8*）　It　would　seem　also　that　in　England；　under　the　later　princes　of　the　Saxon　line；　the　great　affairs　of　the　nation　were　transacted　in　a　meeting　composed　of　a　few　great　barons；　and　we　discover　no　marks　of　those　numerous　assemblies　which　are　taken　notice　of　in　a　former　period。（9*）　　　　　But　the　same　circumstances；　by　which　the　estates　of　different　small　proprietors　were　united　in　one　barony；　contributed　afterwards　to　incorporate　these　larger　districts；　and　to　unite　all　the　inhabitants　of　a　kingdom　in　the　same　feudal　dependency。　As　the　barons　were　diminished　in　number；　and　increased　in　power　and　opulence；　they　became　more　immediate　rivals　to　each　other。　In　their　different　quarrels；　which　were　prosecuted　with　various　success；　the　weaker　party　was　often　obliged　to　have　recourse　to　the　king；　who　alone　was　able　to　screen　him　from　the　fury　of　his　enemy；　and；　in　order　to　procure　that　succour　and　protection　which　his　situation　required；　he　became　willing　to　surrender　his　property；　and　to　hold　his　estate　upon　condition　of　his　yielding　that　obedience；　and　performing　that　service；　which　a　superior　was　accustomed　to　demand　from　his　vassals。　From　the　various　disputes　which　arose；　and　the　accidental　combinations　that　were　formed　among　the　great　families；　the　nobles　were　all；　in　their　turns；　reduced　to　difficulties　from　which　they　were　forced　to　extricate　themselves　by　the　like　compliances；　and　the　sovereign；　who　laid　hold　of　every　opportunity　to　extend　his　influence；　established　his　superiority　over　the　barons　by　the　same　means　which　they　themselves　had　formerly　employed　for　subjecting　the　proprietors　of　smaller　estates。　　　　　Thus；　by　degrees；　the　feudal　system　was　completed　in　most　of　the　countries　of　Europe。　The　whole　of　a　kingdom　came　to　be　united　in　one　great　fief；　of　which　the　king　was　the　superior；　or　lord　paramount；　having　in　some　measure　the　property　of　all　the　land　within　his　dominions。　The　great　barons　became　his　immediate　vassals；　and；　according　to　the　tenure　by　which　they　held　their　estates；　were　subject　to　his　jurisdiction；　and　liable　to　him　in　services　of　the　same　nature　with　those　which　they　exacted　from　their　own　retainers　or　infe