the origin of the distinction of ranks-第34章

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nder　is　considered　as　a　brother；　the　sentence　is　always　given　on　the　favourable　side；　and　even　in　the　most　enormous　crimes；　rarely　any　other　punishment　is　inflicted　than　banishment。'　Shaw's　Travels；　chap。　4；　p。　310。　17。　'They　take　their　kings　on　the　ground　of　birth；　their　generals　on　the　basis　of　courage：　the　authority　of　their　kings　is　not　unlimited　or　arbitrary；　their　generals　control　them　by　example　rather　than　command；　and　by　means　of　admiration　which　attends　upon　energy　and　a　conspicuous　place　in　front　of　the　line。'　Tacitus；　de　mor。　Germ。　？7。　　　　　'On　small　matters　the　chiefs　consult；　on　larger　questions；　the　community；　but　with　this　limitation；　that　even　the　subjects；　the　decision　of　which　rests　with　the　people；　are　first　handled　by　the　chiefs。。。。　When　the　crowd　is　pleased　to　begin　they　take　their　seats　carrying　arms。　Silence　is　called　for　by　the　priests；　who　thenceforward　have　power　also　to　coerce：　then　a　king　or　a　chief　is　listened　to；　in　order　of　age；　birth；　glory　in　war；　or　eloquence；　with　the　prestige　which　belongs　to　their　counsel　rather　than　with　any　prescribed　right　to　command。'　Ibid。　？11。　　　　　'At　this　assembly　it　is　also　permissible　to　lay　accusations　and　to　bring　capital　charges。　The　nature　of　the　death　penalty　differs　according　to　the　offence：　traitors　and　deserters　are　hung　from　trees；　cowards　and　poor　fighters　and　notorious　evil…livers　are　plunged　into　the　mud　of　marshes　with　a　hurdle　on　their　heads。。。。　At　the　same　gatherings　are　selected　chiefs；　who　administer　law　through　the　cantons　and　villages：　each　of　them　has　one　hundred　assessors　from　the　people　to　be　his　responsible　advisers。'　Ibid。　？12。　　　　　'On　the　declaration　of　war　a　high　command　is　set　up　and　invested　with　powers　over　life　and　death；　but　in　peace…time　there　is　no　central　government。　Justice　is　administered　and　disputes　settled　by　various　local　chiefs。。。。　When　a　chieftain　formally　proclaims　his　intention　of　leading　a　raid；　he　calls　for　volunteers：　those　who　approve　the　project　and　trust　the　man　himself　stand　up　and　promise　their　support　amid　loud　applause　from　the　whole　assembly。　Any　one　who　goes　back　on　that　promise　is　considered　a　deserter　and　a　traitor；　and　no　one　ever　trusts　him　again。'　Caesar；　de　bell。　Gall。　lib。　6；　？23。　Chapter　IV　The　authority　of　a　Sovereign；　and　of　subordinate　officers；　over　a　society　composed　of　different　tribes　or　villages　Section　I　The　constitution　of　government　arising　from　the　union　of　different　tribes　or　villages　　　　　The　improvement　of　agriculture；　as　it　increases　the　quantity　of　provisions；　and　renders　particular　tribes　more　numerous　and　flourishing；　so　it　obliges　them　at　length　to　send　out　colonies　to　a　distance；　who　occupy　new　seats　wherever　they　can　find　a　convenient　situation；　and　are　formed　into　separate　villages；　after　the　model　of　those　with　which　they　are　acquainted。　Thus；　in　proportion　as　a　country　is　better　cultivated；　it　comes　to　be　inhabited　by　a　greater　number　of　distinct　societies；　whether　derived　from　the　same　or　from　a　different　original；　agreeing　in　their　manners；　and　resembling　each　other　in　their　institutions　and　customs。　　　　　These　different　communities　being　frequently　at　war；　and　being　exposed　to　continual　invasions　from　their　neighbours；　are　in　many　cases　determined；　by　the　consideration　of　their　mutual　interest；　to　unite　against　their　common　enemies；　and　to　form　a　variety　of　combinations；　which；　from　the　influence　of　particular　circumstances；　are　more　or　less　permanent。　Having　found　the　advantage　of　joining　their　forces　in　one　expedition；　they　are　naturally　disposed　to　continue　the　like　association　in　another；　and　by　degrees　are　encouraged　to　enter　into　a　general　alliance。　The　intercourse　which　people；　in　such　a　situation；　have　maintained　in　war　will　not　be　entirely　dissolved　even　in　time　of　peace；　and　though　the　different　villages　should　be　originally　strangers　to　each　other；　yet；　having　many　opportunities　of　assembling　in　their　military　enterprises；　they　cannot　fail　to　contract　an　acquaintance；　which　will　become　an　inducement　to　their　future　correspondence。　They　have　frequent　opportunities　of　meeting　in　their　common　sports　and　diversions；　the　leading　men　entertain　one　another　with　rustic　hospitality　and　magnificence：　intermarriages　begin　to　take　place　between　their　respective　families；　and　the　various　connexions　of　society　are　gradually　multiplied　and　extended。　　　　　An　alliance　for　mutual　defence　and　security　is　a　measure　suggested　by　such　obvious　views　of　expediency　that　it　must　frequently　take　place；　not　only　among　tribes　of　husbandmen；　but　also　among　those　of　shepherds；　and　even　of　mere　savages。　Many　instances　of　it　are；　accordingly；　to　be　found　in　Tartary；　upon　the　coast　of　Guinea；　in　the　history　of　the　ancient　Germans；　and　among　the　Indians　of　America。　But　such　alliances　are　not　likely　to　produce　a　permanent　union；　until　the　populousness　of　a　country　has　been　increased　by　agriculture；　and　the　inhabitants；　in　consequence　of　that　employment；　have　taken　up　a　fixed　residence　in　the　same　neighbourhood。　　　　　From　a　confederacy　of　this　kind；　a　very　simple　form　of　government　is　commonly　established。　As　every　village；　or　separate　community；　is　subjected　to　its　own　leader；　their　joint　measures　fall　naturally　under　the　direction　of　all　those　distinguished　personages；　whose　frequent　meeting　and　deliberation　gives　rise；　in　a　short　time；　to　a　regular　council；　or　senate；　invested　with　a　degree　of　power　and　authority　corresponding　to　what　each　of　its　members　has　acquired　over　his　own　particular　domestics　and　retainers。　　　　　The　same　considerations　however　which　determine　the　individuals　of　a　single　tribe　to　be　guided　by　a　particular　person　in　their　smaller　expeditions；　must　recommend　a　similar　expedient　in　conducting　a　numerous　army；　composed　of　different　clans；　often　disagreeing　in　their　views；　and　little　connected　with　each　other。　While　every　chief　has　the　conduct　of　his　own　dependents；　it　is　found　convenient　that　some　one　leader　should　be　instructed　with　the　supreme　command　of　their　united　forces；　and　as　that　dignity　is　commonly　bestowed　upon　the　person　who；　by　his　opulence；　is　most　capable　of　supporting　it；　he　is　frequently　enabled　to　maintain　it　during　life；　and　even　in　many　cases　to　render　it　hereditary。　In　this　manner　a　great　chief；　or　king；　is　placed　at　the　head　of　a　nation；　and　is　permitted　to　assume　the　inspection　and　superintendence　of　what　relates　to　its　defence　and　security。　　　　　But；　notwithstanding　the　rank　and　pre…eminence　enjoyed　by　this　primitive　sovereign；　it　may　easily　be　conceived　that　his　authority　will　not　be　very　considerable。　His　advancement　can　hardy　fail　to　excite　the　jealousy　of　chiefs　unaccustomed　to　subordination；　who　will　be　disposed　to　take　every　opportunity　of　curbing　his　pretensions；　and　to　allow　him　no　higher　prerogatives　than　are　sufficient　to　answer　the　purposes　for　which　he　was　created。　His　interpositions；　in　matters　of　public　concern；　will　depend　very　much　upon　times　and　circumstances；　and　being　directed　by　no　previous　rules；　will　be　frequently　made　in　an　irregular　and　desultory　manner。　In　a　day　of　battle；　when　placed　at　the　head　of　his　army；　he　may　venture；　perhaps；　to　rule　with　a　high　hand；　and　it　may　be　dangerous　for　any　of　his　followers　to　disobey　his　orders；　but　upon