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musket is a more expensive machine than a javelin or a bow and
arrows； a cannon or a mortar than a balista or a catapulta。 The
powder which is spent in a modern review is lost irrecoverably；
and occasions a very considerable expense。 The javeline and
arrows which were thrown or shot in an ancient one could easily
be picked up again； and were besides of very little value。 The
cannon and the mortar are not only much dearer； but much heavier
machines than the balista or catapulta； and require a greater
expense； not only to prepare them for the field； but to carry
them to it。 As the superiority of the modern artillery too over
that of the ancients is very great； it has become much more
difficult； and consequently much more expensive； to fortify a
town so as to resist even for a few weeks the attack of that
superior artillery。 In modern times many different causes
contribute to render the defence of the society more expensive。
The unavoidable effects of the natural progress of improvement
have； in this respect； been a good deal enhanced by a great
revolution in the art of war； to which a mere accident； the
invention of gunpowder； seems to have given occasion。
In modern war the great expense of firearms gives an evident
advantage to the nation which can best afford that expense； and
consequently to an opulent and civilised over a poor and
barbarous nation。 In ancient times the opulent and civilised
found it difficult to defend themselves against the poor and
barbarous nations。 In modern times the poor and barbarous find it
difficult to defend themselves against the opulent and civilised。
The invention of firearms； an invention which at first sight
appears to be so pernicious； is certainly favourable both to the
permanency and to the extension of civilization。
PART 2
Of the Expense of Justice
THE second duty of the sovereign； that of protecting； as far
as possible； every member of the society from the injustice or
oppression of every other member of it； or the duty of
establishing an exact administration of justice； requires； too；
very different degrees of expense in the different periods of
society。
Among nations of hunters； as there is scarce any property；
or at least none that exceeds the value of two or three days'
labour； so there is seldom any established magistrate or any
regular administration of justice。 Men who have no property can
injure one another only in their persons or reputations。 But when
one man kills； wounds； beats； or defames another； though he to
whom the injury is done suffers； he who does it receives no
benefit。 It is otherwise with the injuries to property。 The
benefit of the person who does the injury is often equal to the
loss of him who suffers it。 Envy； malice； or resentment are the
only passions which can prompt one man to injure another in his
person or reputation。 But the greater part of men are not very
frequently under the influence of those passions； and the very
worst of men are so only occasionally。 As their gratification
too； how agreeable soever it may be to certain characters； is not
attended with any real or permanent advantage； it is in the
greater part of men commonly restrained by prudential
considerations。 Men may live together in society with some
tolerable degree of security； though there is no civil magistrate
to protect them from the injustice of those passions。 But avarice
and ambition in the rich； in the poor the hatred of labour and
the love of present ease and enjoyment； are the passions which
prompt to invade property； passions much more steady in their
operation； and much more universal in their influence。 Wherever
there is great property there is great inequality。 For one very
rich man there must be at least five hundred poor； and the
affluence of the few supposes the indigence of the many。 The
affluence of the rich excites the indignation of the poor； who
are often both driven by want； and prompted by envy； to invade
his possessions。 It is only under the shelter of the civil
magistrate that the owner of that valuable property； which is
acquired by the labour of many years； or perhaps of many
successive generations； can sleep a single night in security。 He
is at all times surrounded by unknown enemies； whom； though he
never provoked； he can never appease； and from whose injustice he
can be protected only by the powerful arm of the civil magistrate
continually held up to chastise it。 The acquisition of valuable
and extensive property； therefore； necessarily requires the
establishment of civil government。 Where there is no property； or
at least none that exceeds the value of two or three days'
labour； civil government is not so necessary。
Civil government supposes a certain subordination。 But as
the necessity of civil government gradually grows up with the
acquisition of valuable property； so the principal causes which
naturally introduce subordination gradually grow up with the
growth of that valuable property。
The causes or circumstances which naturally introduce
subordination； or which naturally； and antecedent to any civil
institution； give some men some superiority over the greater part
of their brethren； seem to be four in number。
The first of those causes or circumstances is the
superiority of personal qualifications； of strength； beauty； and
agility of body； of wisdom and virtue； of prudence； justice；
fortitude； and moderation of mind。 The qualifications of the
body； unless supported by those of the mind； can give little
authority in any period of society。 He is a very strong man； who；
by mere strength of body； can force two weak ones to obey him。
The qualifications of the mind can alone give a very great
authority。 They are； however； invisible qualities； always
disputable； and generally disputed。 No society； whether barbarous
or civilised； has ever found it convenient to settle the rules of
precedency of rank and subordination according to those invisible
qualities； but according to something that is more plain and
palpable。
The second of those causes or circumstances is the
superiority of age。 An old man； provided his age is not so far
advanced as to give suspicion of dotage； is everywhere more
respected than a young man of equal rank； fortune； and abilities。
Among nations of hunters； such as the native tribes of North
America； age is the sole foundation of rank and precedency。 Among
them； father is the appellation of a superior； brother； of an
equal； and son； of an inferior。 In the most opulent and civilised
nations； age regulates rank among those who are in every other
respect equal； and among whom； therefore； there is nothing else
to regulate it。 Among brothers and among sisters； the eldest
always takes place； and in the succession of the paternal estate
everything which cannot be divided； but must go entire to one
person； such as a title of honour； is