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they must apply to some trade by which they can earn their
subsistence。 That trade； too； is generally so simple and uniform
as to give little exercise to the understanding； while； at the
same time； their labour is both so constant and so severe； that
it leaves them little leisure and less inclination to apply to；
or even to think of； anything else。
But though the common people cannot； in any civilised
society； be so well instructed as people of some rank and
fortune； the most essential parts of education； however； to read；
write； and account； can be acquired at so early a period of life
that the greater part even of those who are to be bred to the
lowest occupations have time to acquire them before they can be
employed in those occupations。 For a very small expense the
public can facilitate； can encourage； and can even impose upon
almost the whole body of the people the necessity of acquiring
those most essential parts of education。
The public can facilitate this acquisition by establishing
in every parish or district a little school； where children may
be taught for a reward so moderate that even a common labourer
may afford it； the master being partly； but not wholly； paid by
the public； because； if he was wholly； or even principally； paid
by it； he would soon learn to neglect his business。 In Scotland
the establishment of such parish schools has taught almost the
whole common people to read； and a very great proportion of them
to write and account。 In England the establishment of charity
schools has had an effect of the same kind； though not so
universally； because the establishment is not so universal。 If in
those little schools the books； by which the children are taught
to read； were a little more instructive than they commonly are；
and if； instead of a little smattering of Latin； which the
children of the common people are sometimes taught there； and
which can scarce ever be of any use to them； they were instructed
in the elementary parts of geometry and mechanics； the literary
education of this rank of people would perhaps be as complete as
it can be。 There is scarce a common trade which does not afford
some opportunities of applying to it the principles of geometry
and mechanics； and which would not therefore gradually exercise
and improve the common people in those principles； the necessary
introduction to the most sublime as well as to the most useful
sciences。
The public can encourage the acquisition of those most
essential parts of education by giving small premiums； and little
badges of distinction； to the children of the common people who
excel in them。
The public can impose upon almost the whole body of the
people the necessity of acquiring those most essential parts of
education； by obliging every man to undergo an examination or
probation in them before he can obtain the freedom in any
corporation； or be allowed to set up any trade either in a
village or town corporate。
It was in this manner； by facilitating the acquisition of
their military and gymnastic exercises； by encouraging it； and
even by imposing upon the whole body of the people the necessity
of learning those exercises； that the Greek and Roman republics
maintained the martial spirit of their respective citizens。 They
facilitated the acquisition of those exercises by appointing a
certain place for learning and practising them； and by granting
to certain masters the privilege of teaching in that place。 Those
masters do not appear to have had either salaries or exclusive
privileges of any kind。 Their reward consisted altogether in what
they got from their scholars； and a citizen who had learnt his
exercises in the public gymnasia had no sort of legal advantage
over one who had learnt them privately； provided the latter had
learnt them equally well。 Those republics encouraged the
acquisition of those exercises by bestowing little premiums and
badges of distinction upon： those who excelled in them。 To have
gained a prize in the Olympic； Isthmian； or Nemaean games； gave
illustration； not only to the person who gained it； but to his
whole family and kindred。 The obligation which every citizen was
under to serve a certain number of years； if called upon； in the
armies of the republic； sufficiently imposed the necessity of
learning those exercises； without which he could not be fit for
that service。
That in the progress of improvement the practice of military
exercises； unless government takes proper pains to support it；
goes gradually to decay； and； together with it； the martial
spirit of the great body of the people； the example of modern
Europe sufficiently demonstrates。 But the security of every
society must always depend； more or less； upon the martial spirit
of the great body of the people。 In the present times； indeed；
that martial spirit alone； and unsupported by a well…disciplined
standing army； would not perhaps be sufficient for the defence
and security of any society。 But where every citizen had the
spirit of a soldier； a smaller standing army would surely be
requisite。 That spirit； besides； would necessarily diminish very
much the dangers to liberty； whether real or imaginary； which are
commonly apprehended from a standing army。 As it would very much
facilitate the operations of that army against a foreign invader；
so it would obstruct them as much if； unfortunately； they should
ever be directed against the constitution of the state。
The ancient institutions of Greece and Rome seem to have
been much more effectual for maintaining the martial spirit of
the great body of the people than the establishment of what are
called the militias of modern times。 They were much more simple。
When they were once established they executed themselves； and it
required little or no attention from government to maintain them
in the most perfect vigour。 Whereas to maintain； even in
tolerable execution； the complex regulations of any modern
militia； requires the continual and painful attention of
government； without which they are constantly falling into total
neglect and disuse。 The influence； besides； of the ancient
institutions was much more universal。 By means of them the whole
body of the people was completely instructed in the use of arms。
Whereas it is but a very small part of them who can ever be so
instructed by the regulations of any modern militia； except；
perhaps； that of Switzerland。 But a coward； a man incapable
either of defending or of revenging himself； evidently wants one
of the most essential parts of the character of a man。 He is as
much mutilated and deformed in his mind as another is in his
body； who is either deprived of some of its most essential
members； or has lost the use of them。 He is evidently the more
wretched and miserable of the two； because happiness and misery；
which reside altogether in the mind； must necessarily depend more
upon the healthful or unhealthful； the m