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contending factions seems to be the most essential circumstances
in the public morals of a free people。 But the factions of the
Greeks were almost always violent and sanguinary； whereas； till
the time of the Gracchi； no blood had ever been shed in any Roman
faction； and from the time of the Gracchi the Roman republic may
be considered as in reality dissolved。 Notwithstanding；
therefore； the very respectable authority of Plato； Aristotle；
and Polybius； and notwithstanding the very ingenious reasons by
which Mr。 Montesquieu endeavours to support that authority； it
seems probable that the musical education of the Greeks had no
great effect in mending their morals； since； without any such
education； those of the Romans were upon the whole superior。 The
respect of those ancient sages for the institutions of their
ancestors had probably disposed them to find much political
wisdom in what was； perhaps； merely an ancient custom； continued
without interruption from the earliest period of those societies
to the times in which they had arrived at a considerable degree
of refinement。 Music and dancing are the great amusements of
almost all barbarous nations； and the great accomplishments which
are supposed to fit any man for entertaining his society。 It is
so at this day among the negroes on the coast of Africa。 It was
so among the ancient Celts； among the ancient Scandinavians； and；
as we may learn from Homer； among the ancient Greeks in the times
preceding the Trojan war。 When the Greek tribes had formed
themselves into little republics； it was natural that the study
of those accomplishments should； for a long time； make a part of
the public and common education of the people。
The masters who instructed the young people； either in music
or in military exercises； do not seem to have been paid； or even
appointed by the state； either in Rome or even in Athens； the
Greek republic of whose laws and customs we are the best
informed。 The state required that every free citizen should fit
himself for defending it in war； and should； upon that account；
learn his military exercises。 But it left him to learn them of
such masters as he could find； and it seems to have advanced
nothing for this purpose but a public field or place of exercise
in which he should practise and perform them。
In the early ages both of the Greek and Roman republics； the
other parts of education seem to have consisted in learning to
read； write； and account according to the arithmetic of the
times。 These accomplishments the richer citizens seem frequently
to have acquired at home by the assistance of some domestic
pedagogue； who was generally either a slave or a freed…man； and
the poorer citizens； in the schools of such masters as made a
trade of teaching for hire。 Such parts of education； however；
were abandoned altogether to the care of the parents or guardians
of each individual。 It does not appear that the state ever
assumed any inspection or direction of them。 By a law of Solon；
indeed； the children were acquitted from maintaining those
parents in their old age who had neglected to instruct them in
some profitable trade or business。
In the progress of refinement； when philosophy and rhetoric
came into fashion； the better sort of people used to send their
children to the schools of philosophers and rhetoricians； in
order to be instructed in these fashionable sciences。 But those
schools were not supported by the public。 They were for a long
time barely tolerated by it。 The demand for philosophy and
rhetoric was for a long time so small that the first professed
teachers of either could not find constant employment in any one
city； but were obliged to travel about from place to place。 In
this manner lived Zeno of Elea； Protagoras； Gorgias； Hippias； and
many others。 As the demand increased； the schools both of
philosophy and rhetoric became stationary； first in Athens； and
afterwards in several other cities。 The state； however； seems
never to have encouraged them further than by assigning some of
them a particular place to teach in； which was sometimes done；
too； by private donors。 The state seems to have assigned the
Academy to Plato； the Lyceum to Aristotle； and the Portico to
Zeno of Citta； the founder of the Stoics。 But Epicurus bequeathed
his gardens to his own school。 Till about the time of Marcus
Antonius； however； no teacher appears to have had any salary from
the public； or to have had any other emoluments but what arose
from the honoraries or fees of his scholars。 The bounty which
that philosophical emperor； as we learn from Lucian； bestowed
upon one of the teachers of philosophy； probably lasted no longer
than his own life。 There was nothing equivalent to the privileges
of graduation； and to have attended any of those schools was not
necessary； in order to be permitted to practise any particular
trade or profession。 If the opinion of their own utility could
not draw scholars to them； the law neither forced anybody to go
to them nor rewarded anybody for having gone to them。 The
teachers had no jurisdiction over their pupils； nor any other
authority besides that natural authority； which superior virtue
and abilities never fail to procure from young people towards
those who are entrusted with any part of their education。
At Rome； the study of the civil law made a part of the
education； not of the greater part of the citizens； but of some
particular families。 The young people； however； who wished to
acquire knowledge in the law； had no public school to go to； and
had no other method of studying it than by frequenting the
company of such of their relations and friends as were supposed
to understand it。 It is perhaps worth while to remark； that
though the Laws of the Twelve Tables were； many of them； copied
from those of some ancient Greek republics； yet law never seems
to have grown up to be a science in any republic of ancient
Greece。 In Rome it became a science very early； and gave a
considerable degree of illustration to those citizens who had the
reputation of understanding it。 In the republics of ancient
Greece； particularly in Athens； the ordinary courts of justice
consisted of numerous； and therefore disorderly； bodies of
people； who frequently decided almost at random； or as clamour；
faction； and party spirit happened to determine。 The ignominy of
an unjust decision； when it was to be divided among five hundred；
a thousand； or fifteen hundred people （for some of their courts
were so very numerous）； could not fall very heavy upon any
individual。 At Rome； on the contrary； the principal courts of
justice consisted either of a single judge or of a small number
of judges； whose characters； especially as they deliberated
always in public； could not fail to be very much affected by any
rash or unjust decision。 In doubtful cases such courts； from
their anxiety to avoid blame； would naturally endeavour to
shelter themselves u