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facilitating the commerce of the society； and those for promoting
the instruction of the people。 The institutions for instruction
are of two kinds： those for the education of youth； and those for
the instruction of people of all ages。 The consideration of the
manner in which the expense of those different sorts of public；
works and institutions may be most properly defrayed will divide
this third part of the present chapter into three different
articles。
ARTICLE 1
Of the Public Works and Institutions for facilitating the
Commerce of the Society
And； first； of those which are necessary for facilitating
Commerce in general。
That the erection and maintenance of the public works which
facilitate the commerce of any country； such as good roads；
bridges； navigable canals； harbours； etc。； must require very
different degrees of expense in the different periods of society
is evident without any proof。 The expense of making and
maintaining the public roads of any country must evidently
increase with the annual produce of the land and labour of that
country； or with the quantity and weight of the goods which it
becomes necessary to fetch and carry upon those roads。 The
strength of a bridge must be suited to the number and weight of
the carriages which are likely to pass over it。 The depth and the
supply of water for a navigable canal must be proportioned to the
number and tonnage of the lighters which are likely to carry
goods upon it； the extent of a harbour to the number of the
shipping which are likely to take shelter in it。
It does not seem necessary that the expense of those public
works should be defrayed from that public revenue； as it is
commonly called； of which the collection and application is in
most countries assigned to the executive power。 The greater part
of such public works may easily be so managed as to afford a
particular revenue sufficient for defraying their own expense；
without bringing any burden upon the general revenue of the
society。
A highway； a bridge； a navigable canal； for example； may in
most cases be both made and maintained by a small toll upon the
carriages which make use of them： a harbour； by a moderate
port…duty upon the tonnage of the shipping which load or unload
in it。 The coinage； another institution for facilitating
commerce； in many countries； not only defrays its own expense；
but affords a small revenue or seignorage to the sovereign。 The
post…office； another institution for the same purpose； over and
above defraying its own expense； affords in almost all countries
a very considerable revenue to the sovereign。
When the carriages which pass over a highway or a bridge；
and the lighters which sail upon a navigable canal； pay toll in
proportion to their weight or their tonnage； they pay for the
maintenance of those public works exactly in proportion to the
wear and tear which they occasion of them。 It seems scarce
possible to invent a more equitable way of maintaining such
works。 This tax or toll too； though it is advanced by the
carrier； is finally paid by the consumer； to whom it must always
be charged in the price of the goods。 As the expense of carriage；
however； is very much reduced by means of such public works； the
goods； notwithstanding the toll come cheaper to the consumer than
the； could otherwise have done； their price not being so much
raised by the toll as it is lowered by the cheapness of the
carriage。 The person who finally pays this tax； therefore； gains
by the application more than he loses by the payment of it。 His
payment is exactly in proportion to his gain。 It is in reality no
more than a part of that gain which he is obliged to give up in
order to get the rest。 It seems impossible to imagine a more
equitable method of raising a tax。
When the toll upon carriages of luxury upon coaches；
post…chaises； etc。； is made somewhat higher in proportion to
their weight than upon carriages of necessary use； such as carts；
waggons； etc。； the indolence and vanity of the rich is made to
contribute in a very easy manner to the relief of the poor； by
rendering cheaper the transportation of heavy goods to all the
different parts of the country。
When high roads； bridges； canals； etc。； are in this manner
made and supported by the commerce which is carried on by means
of them； they can be made only where that commerce requires them；
and consequently where it is proper to make them。 Their expenses
too； their grandeur and magnificence； must be suited to what that
commerce can afford to pay。 They must be made consequently as it
is proper to make them。 A magnificent high road cannot be made
through a desert country where there is little or no commerce； or
merely because it happens to lead to the country villa of the
intendant of the province； or to that of some great lord to whom
the intendant finds it convenient to make his court。 A great
bridge cannot be thrown over a river at a place where nobody
passes； or merely to embellish the view from the windows of a
neighbouring palace： things which sometimes happen in countries
where works of this kind are carried on by any other revenue than
that which they themselves are capable of affording。
In several different parts of Europe the ton or lock…duty
upon a canal is the property of private persons； whose private
interest obliges them to keep up the canal。 If it is not kept in
tolerable order； the navigation necessarily ceases altogether；
and along with it the whole profit which they can make by the
tolls。 If those tolls were put under the management of
commissioners； who had themselves no interest in them； they might
be less attentive to the maintenance of the works which produced
them。 The canal of Languedoc cost the King of France and the
province upwards of thirteen millions of livres； which （at
twenty…eight livres the mark of silver； the value of French money
in the end of the last century） amounted to upwards of nine
hundred thousand pounds sterling。 When that great work was
finished； the most likely method； it was found； of keeping it in
constant repair was to make a present of the tolls to Riquet the
engineer； who planned and conducted the work。 Those tolls
constitute at present a very large estate to the different
branches of the family of that gentleman； who have； therefore； a
great interest to keep the work in constant repair。 But had those
tolls been put under the management of commissioners； who had no
such interest； they might perhaps have been dissipated in
ornamental and unnecessary expenses； while the most essential
parts of the work were allowed to go to ruin。
The tolls for the maintenance of a high road cannot with any
safety be made the property of private persons。 A high road；
though entirely neglected； does not become altogether impassable；
though a canal does。 The proprietors