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he world knows nothing of this Samuel Hopkins； but the potash industry； which was evidently on his mind； was quite important in his day。 Potash； that is； crude potassium carbonate； useful in making soap and in the manufacture of glass； was made by leaching wood ashes and boiling down the lye。 To produce a ton of potash； the trees on an acre of ground would be cut down and burned； the ashes leached； and the lye evaporated in great iron kettles。 A ton of potash was worth about twenty…five dollars。 Nothing could show more plainly the relative value of money and human labor in those early times。
Two more patents were issued during the year 1790。 The second went to Joseph S。 Sampson of Boston for a method of making candles； and the third to Oliver Evans； of whom we shall learn more presently； for an improvement in manufacturing flour and meal。 The fourth patent was granted in 1791 to Francis Baily of Philadelphia for making punches for types。 Next Aaron Putnam of Medford； Massachusetts； thought that he could improve methods of distilling； and John Stone of Concord； Massachusetts； offered a new method of driving piles for bridges。 And a versatile inventor； Samuel Mulliken of Philadelphia； received four patents in one day for threshing grain； cutting and polishing marble； raising a nap on cloth； and breaking hemp。
Then came improvements in making nails； in making bedsteads； in the manufacture of boats； and for propelling boats by cattle。 On August 26； 1791； James Rumsey； John Stevens； and John Fitch （all three will appear again in this narrative） took out patents on means of propelling boats。 On the same day Nathan Read received one on a process for distilling alcohol。
More than fifty patents were granted under the Patent Act of 1790； and mechanical devices were coming in so thick and fast that the department heads apparently found it inconvenient to hear applications。 So the Act of 1790 was repealed。 The second Patent Act （1793） provided that a patent should be granted as a matter of routine to any one who swore to the originality of his device and paid the sum of thirty dollars as a fee。 No one except a citizen； however； could receive a patent。 This act； with some amendments； remained in force until 1836； when the present Patent Office was organized with a rigorous and intricate system for examination of all claims in order to prevent interference。 Protection of the property rights of inventors has been from the beginning of the nation a definite American policy； and to this policy may be ascribed innumerable inventions which have contributed to the greatness of American industry and multiplied the world's comforts and conveniences。
Under the second Patent Act came the most important invention yet offered； an invention which was to affect generations then unborn。 This was a machine for cleaning cotton and it was offered by a young Yankee schoolmaster； temporarily sojourning in the South。
CHAPTER II。 ELI WHITNEY AND THE COTTON GIN
The cotton industry is one of the most ancient。 One or more of the many species of the cotton plant is indigenous to four continents； Asia； Africa； and the Americas； and the manufacture of the fiber into yarn and cloth seems to have developed independently in each of them。 We find mention of cotton in India fifteen hundred years before Christ。 The East Indians； with only the crudest machinery； spun yarn and wove cloth as diaphanous as the best appliances of the present day have been able to produce。
Alexander the Great introduced the 〃vegetable wool〃 into Europe。 The fable of the 〃vegetable lamb of Tartary〃 persisted almost down to modern times。 The Moors cultivated cotton in Spain on an extensive scale； but after their expulsion the industry languished。 The East India Company imported cotton fabrics into England early in the seventeenth century； and these fabrics made their way in spite of the bitter opposition of the woolen interests； which were at times strong enough to have the use of cotton cloth prohibited by law。 But when the Manchester spinners took up the manufacture of cotton； the fight was won。 The Manchester spinners； however； used linen for their warp threads； for without machinery they could not spin threads sufficiently strong from the short…fibered Indian cotton。
In the New World the Spanish explorers found cotton and cotton fabrics in use everywhere。 Columbus； Cortes； Pizarro； Magellan； and others speak of the various uses to which the fiber was put； and admired the striped awnings and the colored mantles made by the natives。 It seems probable that cotton was in use in the New World quite as early as in India。
The first English settlers in America found little or no cotton among the natives。 But they soon began to import the fiber from the West Indies； whence came also the plant itself into the congenial soil and climate of the Southern colonies。 During the colonial period； however； cotton never became the leading crop； hardly an important crop。 Cotton could be grown profitably only where there was an abundant supply of exceedingly cheap labor； and labor in America； white or black； was never and could never be as cheap as in India。 American slaves could be much more profitably employed in the cultivation of rice and indigo。
Three varieties of the cotton plant were grown in the South。 Two kinds of the black…seed or long…staple variety thrived in the sea…islands and along the coast from Delaware to Georgia； but only the hardier and more prolific green…seed or short…staple cotton could。 be raised inland。 The labor of cultivating and harvesting cotton of any kind was very great。 The fiber； growing in bolls resembling a walnut in size and shape； had to be taken by hand from every boll； as it has to be today； for no satisfactory cotton harvester has yet been invented。 But in the case of the green…seed or upland cotton； the only kind which could ever be cultivated extensively in the South； there was another and more serious obstacle in the way； namely； the difficulty of separating the fiber from the seeds。 No machine yet devised could perform this tedious and unprofitable task。 For the black…seed or sea…island cotton； the churka； or roller gin； used in India from time immemorial； drawing the fiber slowly between a pair of rollers to push out the seeds； did the work imperfectly； but this churka was entirely useless for the green…seed variety； the fiber of which clung closely to the seed and would yield only to human hands。 The quickest and most skillful pair of hands could separate only a pound or two of lint from its three pounds of seeds in an ordinary working day。 Usually the task was taken up at the end of the day； when the other work was done。 The slaves sat round an overseer who shook the dozing and nudged the slow。 It was also the regular task for a rainy day。 It is not surprising； then； that cotton was scarce； that flax and wool in that day were the usual textiles； that in 1783 wool furnished about seventy…seven per cent； flax about eighteen per cent； and cotton only about five per cent of the clothing of the people of Europe and the United States。
That series of inventions designed for the manufacture of cloth； and destined to transform Great Britain； the