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ct of 1790； for the protection of American inventors； for that law was the result of a petition which he made to Congress and which； being referred to a committee； was favorably reported。 Thus we may regard John Stevens as the father of the American patent law。
John Stevens owned the old Dutch farm on the Hudson on which the city of Hoboken now stands。 The place had been in possession of the Bayard family； but William Bayard； who lived there at the time of the Revolution； was a Loyalist； and his house on Castle Point was burned down and his estate confiscated。 After the Revolution Stevens acquired the property。 He laid it out as a town in 1804； made it his summer residence； and established there the machine shops in which he and his sons carried on their mechanical experiments。
These shops were easily the largest and bestequipped in the Union when in 1838 John Stevens died at the age of ninety。 The four brothers； John Cox； Robert Livingston； James Alexander； and Edwin Augustus； worked harmoniously together。 〃No one ever heard of any quarrel or dissension in the Stevens family。 They were workmen themselves； and they were superior to their subordinates because they were better engineers and better men of business than any other folk who up to that time had undertaken the business of transportation in the United States。〃*
* Abram S。 Hewitt。 Quoted in Iles； 〃Leading American Inventors〃； p。 37。
The youngest of these brothers； Edwin Augustus Stevens； dying in 1868； left a large part of his fortune to found the Stevens Institute of Technology； afterwards erected at Hoboken not far from the old family homestead on Castle Point。 The mechanical star of the family； however； was the second brother； Robert Livingston Stevens； whose many inventions made for the great improvement of transportation both by land and water。 For a quarter of a century； from 1815 to 1840； he was the foremost builder of steamboats in America； and under his hand the steamboat increased amazingly in speed and efficiency。 He made great contributions to the railway。 The first locomotives ran upon wooden stringers plated with strap iron。 A loose end〃a snakehead〃 it was calledsometimes curled up and pierced through the floor of a car； causing a wreck。 The solid metal T…rail； now in universal use； was designed by Stevens and was first used on the Camden and Amboy Railroad； of which he was president and his brother Edwin treasurer and manager。 The swivel truck and the cow…catcher； the modern method of attaching rails to ties； the vestibule car； and many improvements in the locomotive were also first introduced on the Stevens road。
The Stevens brothers exerted their influence also on naval construction。 A double invention of Robert and Edwin； the forced draft； to augment steam power and save coal； and the air…tight fireroom； which they applied to their own vessels； was afterwards adopted by all navies。 Robert designed and projected an ironclad battleship； the first one in the world。 This vessel； called the Stevens Battery； was begun by authority of the Government in 1842； but； owing to changes in the design and inadequate appropriations by Congress； it was never launched。 It lay for many years in the basin at Hoboken an unfinished hulk。 Robert died in 1856。 On the outbreak of the Civil War； Edwin tried to revive the interest of the Government； but by that time the design of the Stevens Battery was obsolete； and Edwin Stevens was an old man。 So the honors for the construction of the first ironclad man…of…war to fight and win a battle went to John Ericsson； that other great inventor； who built the famous Monitor for the Union Government。
Carlyle's oft…quoted term； 〃Captains of Industry；〃 may fittingly be applied to the Stevens family。 Strong； masterful； and farseeing； they used ideas； their own and those of others； in a large way； and were able to succeed where more timorous inventors failed。 Without the stimulus of poverty they achieved success； making in their shops that combination of men and material which not only added to their own fortunes but also served the world。
We left Eli Whitney defeated in his efforts to divert to himself some adequate share of the untold riches arising from his great invention of the cotton gin。 Whitney； however； had other sources of profit in his own character and mechanical ability。 As early as 1798 he had turned his talents to the manufacture of firearms。 He had established his shops at Whitneyville； near New Haven； and it was there that he worked out another achievement quite as important economically as the cotton gin； even though the immediate consequences were less spectacular： namely； the principle of standardization or interchangeability in manufacture。
This principle is the very foundation today of all American large…scale production。 The manufacturer produces separately thousands of copies of every part of a complicated machine； confident that an equal number of the complete machine will be assembled and set in motion。 The owner of a motor car； a reaper； a tractor； or a sewing machine； orders； perhaps by telegraph or telephone； a broken or lost part； taking it for granted that the new part can be fitted easily and precisely into the place of the old。
Though it is probable that this idea of standardization； or interchangeability； originated independently in Whitney's mind； and though it is certain that he and one of his neighbors； who will be mentioned presently； were the first manufacturers in the world to carry it out successfully in practice； yet it must be noted that the idea was not entirely new。 We are told that the system was already in operation in England in the manufacture of ship's blocks。 From no less an authority than Thomas Jefferson we learn that a French mechanic had previously conceived the same idea。* But； as no general result whatever came from the idea in either France or England； the honors go to Whitney and North； since they carried it to such complete success that it spread to other branches of manufacturing。 And in the face of opposition。 When Whitney wrote that his leading object was 〃to substitute correct and effective operations of machinery for that skill of the artist which is acquired only by long practice and experience；〃 in order to make the same parts of different guns 〃as much like each other as the successive impressions of a copper…plate engraving；〃 he was laughed to scorn by the ordnance officers of France and England。 〃Even the Washington officials；〃 says Roe； 〃were sceptical and became uneasy at advancing so much money without a single gun having been completed； and Whitney went to Washington； taking with him ten pieces of each part of a musket。 He exhibited these to the Secretary of War and the army officers interested； as a succession of piles of different parts。 Selecting indiscriminately from each of the piles； he put together ten muskets； an achievement which was looked on with amazement。〃**
* See the letter from Jefferson to John Jay； of April 30； 1785； cited in Roe； 〃English and American Tool Builders〃； p。 129。
** Roe； 〃English and American Tool Builders〃； p。 133。
While Whitney worked out his plans at Whitneyville； Simeon North； another Connecticut m